Popularizing innovative energy vehicles is a strategic decision for promoting green growth and ensuring energy security. It is a significant step in reducing carbon emissions in the automobile industry, particularly toward achieving carbon neutrality and carbon peaking in China. As the core power source for innovative energy vehicles, the green recycling and effective use of spent lithium-ion batteries are directly related to the realization of green and sustainable development in the electric vehicle industry. Graphite is currently the state-of-the-art anode material for commercial lithium-ion batteries owing to its high reversible capacity and good cycling stability. Therefore, the recovery and recycling of used graphite anode materials should be actively investigated. This study discusses recent technology for recovering and treating anode graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries. Several recovery and treatment approaches, such as deep purification, selective lithium extraction, and residual electrolyte removal, and their limits are described. The diversified resource recycling paths of recycled graphite and its products are summarized on the basis of different graphite structural characteristics, including its role as anode material or raw material for catalysts, graphene, and composite films. Furthermore, the life cycle evaluation of graphite recycling is outlined, and the environmental effect advantages and disadvantages of various graphite recycling treatment systems are explored. Finally, the technological problems and future developments of graphite recovery and resource recycling for lithium-ion battery anodes are explored. In addition, we recommend that future research should concentrate on the following four-in-one development: elucidating the battery failure mechanism, realizing the efficient recovery of all components, adhering to the new idea of green chemistry, and widening the market of high-value applications.
Keywords:lithium-ion battery
;
anode graphite
;
recovery
;
resource recycling
;
full life cycle assessment
YAN Qiaoyi. Recovery and resource recycling of graphite anode materials for spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(6): 1760-1771
Fig. 2
(a) Flow chart of inorganic acid recovery process; (b) Low temperature sulfuric acid solidification method; (c) Waste graphite anode before electrolysis, recovered copper foil and anode active material after electrolysis, separation of graphite and copper foil and dissolution of Li+ process and the change of current with electrolysis time; (d) Schematic diagram of organic acid leaching; (e) Water-soluble lithium salt recovery process; (f)SEM images of untreated, heat-treated, heat-treated graphite after subcritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction, and heat-treated graphite after supercritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction[16,23-24,26,31,37]
Fig. 3
(a) Schematic diagram of 18650 cell and interior, 18650 cell after removal of upper and lower covers and opening of can, and completion of RAM anode laminate; (b) XRD patterns of CG, AG and RG, (002) peak reflection, XPS high resolution spectra and structural models of AG and RG with different interlayer spacings; (c) Schematic illustration for the regenerating process of graphite from spent LIBs; (d) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of T-SGT/Si@C anode material; (e) Synthesis process of P-Ni/NiO@G electrode; (f) Schematic diagram of battery cycling and lattice expansion of acid-leached graphite; (g) Preparation method of graphene from waste Li-ion batteries; (h) Schematic diagram of experimental steps for preparing graphene oxide by improved hummers method; (i) Preparation using waste graphite model of graphene oxide; (j) Preparation process of polymer-graphite nanocomposite films; (k) PMS activation in AM/PMS system and reaction mechanism of RhB degradation[38, 42-43, 46-49, 51, 53-54]
Fig. 5
Typical lithium-ion battery anode recycling processes and life cycle assessment[57]
从对环境影响出发,分析对比了使用酸作为浸出剂的湿法冶金以及高温煅烧的火法冶金是否可取。湿法冶金的优化方向在于减少造成环境毒性的酸的使用量和减少反应时间长、反应温度高造成的能源消耗两个方面。火法冶金由于使用惰性气氛需要额外的能量输入,其改进方向在于使用可再生能源和降低反应温度、减少反应时间。通过对包括全球变暖、淡水毒性、人类毒性、海洋生态毒性、矿产资源稀缺、陆地酸化、陆地生态毒性和水资源消耗等相关影响类别评估,得出结论,湿法冶金与火法冶金联合工艺更加环保。此外,讨论了原材料的提取、运输和净化过程中电池的碳足迹。研究结果表明,在1 kWh LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2型锂离子电池生产过程中,石墨处理过程排放的温室气体占整个工艺流程的40%,SO x 和NO x 排放分别占63%和67%。而仅为了满足欧洲每年300 GWh的电池生产目标,就需要大约270000吨电池级石墨。因此,从废锂离子电池中回收石墨以显著降低电池生产过程中的环境足迹具有必然性。
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(a) Flow chart of inorganic acid recovery process; (b) Low temperature sulfuric acid solidification method; (c) Waste graphite anode before electrolysis, recovered copper foil and anode active material after electrolysis, separation of graphite and copper foil and dissolution of Li+ process and the change of current with electrolysis time; (d) Schematic diagram of organic acid leaching; (e) Water-soluble lithium salt recovery process; (f)SEM images of untreated, heat-treated, heat-treated graphite after subcritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction, and heat-treated graphite after supercritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction[16,23-24,26,31,37]Fig. 2
... ,23-24,26,31,37](a) Flow chart of inorganic acid recovery process; (b) Low temperature sulfuric acid solidification method; (c) Waste graphite anode before electrolysis, recovered copper foil and anode active material after electrolysis, separation of graphite and copper foil and dissolution of Li+ process and the change of current with electrolysis time; (d) Schematic diagram of organic acid leaching; (e) Water-soluble lithium salt recovery process; (f)SEM images of untreated, heat-treated, heat-treated graphite after subcritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction, and heat-treated graphite after supercritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction[16,23-24,26,31,37]Fig. 2
(a) Flow chart of inorganic acid recovery process; (b) Low temperature sulfuric acid solidification method; (c) Waste graphite anode before electrolysis, recovered copper foil and anode active material after electrolysis, separation of graphite and copper foil and dissolution of Li+ process and the change of current with electrolysis time; (d) Schematic diagram of organic acid leaching; (e) Water-soluble lithium salt recovery process; (f)SEM images of untreated, heat-treated, heat-treated graphite after subcritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction, and heat-treated graphite after supercritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction[16,23-24,26,31,37]Fig. 2
(a) Flow chart of inorganic acid recovery process; (b) Low temperature sulfuric acid solidification method; (c) Waste graphite anode before electrolysis, recovered copper foil and anode active material after electrolysis, separation of graphite and copper foil and dissolution of Li+ process and the change of current with electrolysis time; (d) Schematic diagram of organic acid leaching; (e) Water-soluble lithium salt recovery process; (f)SEM images of untreated, heat-treated, heat-treated graphite after subcritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction, and heat-treated graphite after supercritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction[16,23-24,26,31,37]Fig. 2
(a) Flow chart of inorganic acid recovery process; (b) Low temperature sulfuric acid solidification method; (c) Waste graphite anode before electrolysis, recovered copper foil and anode active material after electrolysis, separation of graphite and copper foil and dissolution of Li+ process and the change of current with electrolysis time; (d) Schematic diagram of organic acid leaching; (e) Water-soluble lithium salt recovery process; (f)SEM images of untreated, heat-treated, heat-treated graphite after subcritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction, and heat-treated graphite after supercritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction[16,23-24,26,31,37]Fig. 2
(a) Flow chart of inorganic acid recovery process; (b) Low temperature sulfuric acid solidification method; (c) Waste graphite anode before electrolysis, recovered copper foil and anode active material after electrolysis, separation of graphite and copper foil and dissolution of Li+ process and the change of current with electrolysis time; (d) Schematic diagram of organic acid leaching; (e) Water-soluble lithium salt recovery process; (f)SEM images of untreated, heat-treated, heat-treated graphite after subcritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction, and heat-treated graphite after supercritical CO2-assisted electrolyte extraction[16,23-24,26,31,37]Fig. 2
... [38,42-43,46-49,51,53-54](a) Schematic diagram of 18650 cell and interior, 18650 cell after removal of upper and lower covers and opening of can, and completion of RAM anode laminate; (b) XRD patterns of CG, AG and RG, (002) peak reflection, XPS high resolution spectra and structural models of AG and RG with different interlayer spacings; (c) Schematic illustration for the regenerating process of graphite from spent LIBs; (d) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of T-SGT/Si@C anode material; (e) Synthesis process of P-Ni/NiO@G electrode; (f) Schematic diagram of battery cycling and lattice expansion of acid-leached graphite; (g) Preparation method of graphene from waste Li-ion batteries; (h) Schematic diagram of experimental steps for preparing graphene oxide by improved hummers method; (i) Preparation using waste graphite model of graphene oxide; (j) Preparation process of polymer-graphite nanocomposite films; (k) PMS activation in AM/PMS system and reaction mechanism of RhB degradation[38, 42-43, 46-49, 51, 53-54]Fig. 3
(a) Schematic diagram of 18650 cell and interior, 18650 cell after removal of upper and lower covers and opening of can, and completion of RAM anode laminate; (b) XRD patterns of CG, AG and RG, (002) peak reflection, XPS high resolution spectra and structural models of AG and RG with different interlayer spacings; (c) Schematic illustration for the regenerating process of graphite from spent LIBs; (d) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of T-SGT/Si@C anode material; (e) Synthesis process of P-Ni/NiO@G electrode; (f) Schematic diagram of battery cycling and lattice expansion of acid-leached graphite; (g) Preparation method of graphene from waste Li-ion batteries; (h) Schematic diagram of experimental steps for preparing graphene oxide by improved hummers method; (i) Preparation using waste graphite model of graphene oxide; (j) Preparation process of polymer-graphite nanocomposite films; (k) PMS activation in AM/PMS system and reaction mechanism of RhB degradation[38, 42-43, 46-49, 51, 53-54]Fig. 3
(a) Schematic diagram of 18650 cell and interior, 18650 cell after removal of upper and lower covers and opening of can, and completion of RAM anode laminate; (b) XRD patterns of CG, AG and RG, (002) peak reflection, XPS high resolution spectra and structural models of AG and RG with different interlayer spacings; (c) Schematic illustration for the regenerating process of graphite from spent LIBs; (d) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of T-SGT/Si@C anode material; (e) Synthesis process of P-Ni/NiO@G electrode; (f) Schematic diagram of battery cycling and lattice expansion of acid-leached graphite; (g) Preparation method of graphene from waste Li-ion batteries; (h) Schematic diagram of experimental steps for preparing graphene oxide by improved hummers method; (i) Preparation using waste graphite model of graphene oxide; (j) Preparation process of polymer-graphite nanocomposite films; (k) PMS activation in AM/PMS system and reaction mechanism of RhB degradation[38, 42-43, 46-49, 51, 53-54]Fig. 3
(a) Schematic diagram of 18650 cell and interior, 18650 cell after removal of upper and lower covers and opening of can, and completion of RAM anode laminate; (b) XRD patterns of CG, AG and RG, (002) peak reflection, XPS high resolution spectra and structural models of AG and RG with different interlayer spacings; (c) Schematic illustration for the regenerating process of graphite from spent LIBs; (d) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of T-SGT/Si@C anode material; (e) Synthesis process of P-Ni/NiO@G electrode; (f) Schematic diagram of battery cycling and lattice expansion of acid-leached graphite; (g) Preparation method of graphene from waste Li-ion batteries; (h) Schematic diagram of experimental steps for preparing graphene oxide by improved hummers method; (i) Preparation using waste graphite model of graphene oxide; (j) Preparation process of polymer-graphite nanocomposite films; (k) PMS activation in AM/PMS system and reaction mechanism of RhB degradation[38, 42-43, 46-49, 51, 53-54]Fig. 3
(a) Schematic diagram of 18650 cell and interior, 18650 cell after removal of upper and lower covers and opening of can, and completion of RAM anode laminate; (b) XRD patterns of CG, AG and RG, (002) peak reflection, XPS high resolution spectra and structural models of AG and RG with different interlayer spacings; (c) Schematic illustration for the regenerating process of graphite from spent LIBs; (d) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of T-SGT/Si@C anode material; (e) Synthesis process of P-Ni/NiO@G electrode; (f) Schematic diagram of battery cycling and lattice expansion of acid-leached graphite; (g) Preparation method of graphene from waste Li-ion batteries; (h) Schematic diagram of experimental steps for preparing graphene oxide by improved hummers method; (i) Preparation using waste graphite model of graphene oxide; (j) Preparation process of polymer-graphite nanocomposite films; (k) PMS activation in AM/PMS system and reaction mechanism of RhB degradation[38, 42-43, 46-49, 51, 53-54]Fig. 3
(a) Schematic diagram of 18650 cell and interior, 18650 cell after removal of upper and lower covers and opening of can, and completion of RAM anode laminate; (b) XRD patterns of CG, AG and RG, (002) peak reflection, XPS high resolution spectra and structural models of AG and RG with different interlayer spacings; (c) Schematic illustration for the regenerating process of graphite from spent LIBs; (d) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of T-SGT/Si@C anode material; (e) Synthesis process of P-Ni/NiO@G electrode; (f) Schematic diagram of battery cycling and lattice expansion of acid-leached graphite; (g) Preparation method of graphene from waste Li-ion batteries; (h) Schematic diagram of experimental steps for preparing graphene oxide by improved hummers method; (i) Preparation using waste graphite model of graphene oxide; (j) Preparation process of polymer-graphite nanocomposite films; (k) PMS activation in AM/PMS system and reaction mechanism of RhB degradation[38, 42-43, 46-49, 51, 53-54]Fig. 3
(a) Schematic diagram of 18650 cell and interior, 18650 cell after removal of upper and lower covers and opening of can, and completion of RAM anode laminate; (b) XRD patterns of CG, AG and RG, (002) peak reflection, XPS high resolution spectra and structural models of AG and RG with different interlayer spacings; (c) Schematic illustration for the regenerating process of graphite from spent LIBs; (d) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of T-SGT/Si@C anode material; (e) Synthesis process of P-Ni/NiO@G electrode; (f) Schematic diagram of battery cycling and lattice expansion of acid-leached graphite; (g) Preparation method of graphene from waste Li-ion batteries; (h) Schematic diagram of experimental steps for preparing graphene oxide by improved hummers method; (i) Preparation using waste graphite model of graphene oxide; (j) Preparation process of polymer-graphite nanocomposite films; (k) PMS activation in AM/PMS system and reaction mechanism of RhB degradation[38, 42-43, 46-49, 51, 53-54]Fig. 3
(a) Schematic diagram of 18650 cell and interior, 18650 cell after removal of upper and lower covers and opening of can, and completion of RAM anode laminate; (b) XRD patterns of CG, AG and RG, (002) peak reflection, XPS high resolution spectra and structural models of AG and RG with different interlayer spacings; (c) Schematic illustration for the regenerating process of graphite from spent LIBs; (d) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of T-SGT/Si@C anode material; (e) Synthesis process of P-Ni/NiO@G electrode; (f) Schematic diagram of battery cycling and lattice expansion of acid-leached graphite; (g) Preparation method of graphene from waste Li-ion batteries; (h) Schematic diagram of experimental steps for preparing graphene oxide by improved hummers method; (i) Preparation using waste graphite model of graphene oxide; (j) Preparation process of polymer-graphite nanocomposite films; (k) PMS activation in AM/PMS system and reaction mechanism of RhB degradation[38, 42-43, 46-49, 51, 53-54]Fig. 3
... [57]Typical lithium-ion battery anode recycling processes and life cycle assessment[57]Fig. 5
从对环境影响出发,分析对比了使用酸作为浸出剂的湿法冶金以及高温煅烧的火法冶金是否可取.湿法冶金的优化方向在于减少造成环境毒性的酸的使用量和减少反应时间长、反应温度高造成的能源消耗两个方面.火法冶金由于使用惰性气氛需要额外的能量输入,其改进方向在于使用可再生能源和降低反应温度、减少反应时间.通过对包括全球变暖、淡水毒性、人类毒性、海洋生态毒性、矿产资源稀缺、陆地酸化、陆地生态毒性和水资源消耗等相关影响类别评估,得出结论,湿法冶金与火法冶金联合工艺更加环保.此外,讨论了原材料的提取、运输和净化过程中电池的碳足迹.研究结果表明,在1 kWh LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2型锂离子电池生产过程中,石墨处理过程排放的温室气体占整个工艺流程的40%,SO x 和NO x 排放分别占63%和67%.而仅为了满足欧洲每年300 GWh的电池生产目标,就需要大约270000吨电池级石墨.因此,从废锂离子电池中回收石墨以显著降低电池生产过程中的环境足迹具有必然性. ...
... [57]Fig. 5
从对环境影响出发,分析对比了使用酸作为浸出剂的湿法冶金以及高温煅烧的火法冶金是否可取.湿法冶金的优化方向在于减少造成环境毒性的酸的使用量和减少反应时间长、反应温度高造成的能源消耗两个方面.火法冶金由于使用惰性气氛需要额外的能量输入,其改进方向在于使用可再生能源和降低反应温度、减少反应时间.通过对包括全球变暖、淡水毒性、人类毒性、海洋生态毒性、矿产资源稀缺、陆地酸化、陆地生态毒性和水资源消耗等相关影响类别评估,得出结论,湿法冶金与火法冶金联合工艺更加环保.此外,讨论了原材料的提取、运输和净化过程中电池的碳足迹.研究结果表明,在1 kWh LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2型锂离子电池生产过程中,石墨处理过程排放的温室气体占整个工艺流程的40%,SO x 和NO x 排放分别占63%和67%.而仅为了满足欧洲每年300 GWh的电池生产目标,就需要大约270000吨电池级石墨.因此,从废锂离子电池中回收石墨以显著降低电池生产过程中的环境足迹具有必然性. ...