Titanium niobium oxide (TNO) has become one of the preferred anode materials for high-power and long-life lithium-ion power batteries due to its high specific capacity, safe Li+-intercalation potential, fast Li+-intercalation path, and stable Li+-intercalation structure. The relatively low electronic conductivity of TNO anode materials, on the other hand, limits their high rate of performance. TNO's structural characteristics, preparation methods, and modification strategies are discussed in this paper. The crystal structures of several TNO materials with different Ti/Nb ratios are discussed, as well as the synergistic mechanism of both redox and intercalation pseudocapacitance, and the mechanism of rapid lithium conduction is elucidated. Furthermore, several methods and their advantages for TNO preparation are introduced, including solid-state reaction, sol-gel method, electrospinning method, template method, and solvothermal method. In addition, the effects of doping, defect, and composite on electron and charge conductivities, as well as the electrochemical performance of TNO, are emphatically analyzed. Finally, the research status, existing issues, and applications of TNO as anode material in two different energy storage systems of lithium-ion battery and hybrid lithium-ion capacitor are also discussed. Comprehensive analysis reveals that element doping and defect design can change the electronic structure of TNO, and conductive material composite can be used to construct a multi-dimensional electronic path. The combination of various modifications, in particular, can significantly improve the rate performance and cycle stability of TNO materials, which is expected to make it a good application in high-power energy storage devices.
SUN Dewang. Research progress of titanium niobium oxide used as anode of lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2021, 10(6): 2127-2143
目前商业锂离子电池通常采用石墨作为负极,由于其嵌锂电位与金属锂电位非常接近(0.1 V vs. Li/Li+),加之相对较低的嵌锂动力学性能,当充电电流较大时,极易在电池内部发生电化学极化,导致石墨负极表面有不可逆的金属锂沉积,这不仅降低了电池的循环寿命,而且形成的“锂枝晶”可能刺穿隔膜导致电池内短路,进而造成电池安全隐患[1]。因此,开发新型负极材料,使其不仅在大电流下仍保持良好的嵌/脱锂动力学性能,而且具有安全嵌锂电位,是实现锂离子电池应用于可快充动力电池的前提。
Fig. 2
Structural changes of LixTiNb2O7 during Li insertion-extraction(a-b). (a) in situ XRD patterns collected during initial discharge and charge at a constant current rate of C/8 between 1.0 V and 3.0 V[22]; (b) Unit cell volume V and lattice parameter b calculated from “Le Bail fitting” as a function of “x” in LixTiNb2O7 (“x” is derived from capacity obtained; open circle: during discharge; solid dot: during charge)[22]; (c-f) lithiation process of TiNb2O7 during discharge process[23]: (c) TiNb2O7, (d) Li0.88TiNb2O7, (e) Li2.67TiNb2O7, (f) Li4TiNb2O7; (g) first discharge/charge curve for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes[24]; (h) cyclic voltammogram curves for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes in voltage range of 1.0~2.5 V[24]
Fig. 3
Different pseudocapacitance mechanisms[25]: (a) monolayer adsorption pseudocapacitance (underpotential deposition), (b) surface redox pseudocapacitance, and (c) intercalation pseudocapacitance; Calculation of capacitance contribution by CV[26]: (d) separation of totalcurrent (solid line) and capacitive currents (shaded regions) at 0.5 mV/s, (e) contribution ratio of capacitive and diffusion-controlled charge at various scan rates
Fig. 7
(a) SEM images of TNO/G composites; (b) TEM images of TNO/G composites; (c) rate capabilities of pure TNO and TNO/G at different current densities; (d) capacity retention of TNO/G anode at various rates: discharge current rate fixed at 1 C (filled data points stand for discharge capacities; nonfilled data points stand for charge capacities)[44]
Fig. 8
(a) and (b) VG/TNO/HMB||LiFePO4 rate capabilities; (c) cyclic stability at 5 C[41]; (d) full cell performances of NMC pouch cells, voltage profile of first cycle and second charge performed before cell storage[62]; (e) gas production during storage of charged cells at 45 ℃. Black line and square represent LTO||NMC system, blue line and circle represent TNO7-32||NMC system, red line and triangle represent TNO7-6||NMC system, and yellow line and diamond represent asymmetric TNO7-6||NMC cell[62]
Fig. 9
(a) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of individual composite electrode (3D-O-P-TNO and graphene grass) vs. Li/Li+ reference electrode, along with voltage profile of 3D-O-P-TNO||graphene grass hybrid supercapacitor[39]; (b) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of TiNb2O7||graphene hybrid supercapacitor at different current densities[39]; (c) relationship between cycle number and capacitance retention and coulombic efficiency at 1 A/g[39]; (d) cycling performance of TNO/HG||AC at 0.2 A/g[64], (e) ragone plots of TNO/HG||AC compared with other Ti-and Nb-based Li-HSCs[64]
ZHANG P C, YUAN T, PANG Y P, et al. Influence of current density on graphite anode failure in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2019, 166(3): A5489-A5495.
ROY K, WAHID M, PUTHUSSERI D, et al. High capacity, power density and cycling stability of silicon Li-ion battery anodes with a few layer black phosphorus additive[J]. Sustainable Energy & Fuels, 2019, 3(1): 245-250.
QIAO Ronghan, CEN Guanjun, SHEN Xiaoyu, et al. Reviews of selected 100 recent papers for lithium batteries(Dec 1, 2020 to Jan 31, 2021)[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2021, 10(2): 393-407.
VIROLAINEN S, FALLAH F M, LAITINEN A, et al. Solvent extraction fractionation of Li-ion battery leachate containing Li, Ni, and Co[J]. Separation and Purification Technology, 2017, 179: 274-282.
ZHANG Y, HU M Z, YUAN M W, et al. Ordered two-dimensional porous Co3O4 nanosheets as electrocatalysts for rechargeable Li-O2 batteries[J]. Nano Research, 2019, 12(2): 299-302.
PANG Y P, WANG J, ZHOU Z G, et al. Core-shell Fe3O4@Fe ultrafine nanoparticles as advanced anodes for Li-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2018, 735: 833-839.
YIN Jian, DONG Jiling, DING Hao, et al. Research progress of transition metal oxide anode materials for lithium ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2021, 10(3): 995-1001.
YUAN T, TAN Z P, MA C R, et al. Challenges of spinel Li4Ti5O12 for lithium-ion battery industrial applications[J]. Advanced Energy Materials, 2017, 7(12): 1601625.
SALMAN M S, PARK A R, CHA M J, et al. Lysozyme-templated meso-macroporous hollow TiO2 for lithium ion battery anode[J]. ACS Applied Nano Materials, 2018, 1(2): 698-710.
HOU J, ZHANG H M, LIN J J, et al. Hollow TiO2 submicrospheres assembled by tiny nanocrystals as superior anode for lithium ion battery[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2019, 7(41): 23733-23738.
SOTOMAYOR M E, DE LA TORRE-GAMARRA C, BUCHELI W, et al. Additive-free Li4Ti5O12 thick electrodes for Li-ion batteries with high electrochemical performance[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2018, 6(14): 5952-5961.
AURBACH D, ZINIGRAD E, COHEN Y, et al. A short review of failure mechanisms of lithium metal and lithiated graphite anodes in liquid electrolyte solutions[J]. Solid State Ionics, 2002, 148: 405-416.
ZHENG Y X, XIA S X, DONG F, et al. High performance Li metal anode enabled by robust covalent triazine framework-based protective layer[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2020, 31(6): 2006159.
CAVA R J, MURPHY D W, ZAHURAK S M. Lithium insertion in Wadsley-Roth phases based on niobium oxide[J]. Journal of the electrochemical society, 1983, 130(12): 2345-2351.
LIN C F, YU S, WU S Q, et al. Ru0.01Ti0.99Nb2O7 as an intercalation-type anode material with a large capacity and high rate performance for lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2015, 3(16): 8627-8635.
GRIFFITH K J, SEYMOUR I D, HOPE M A, et al. Ionic and Electronic conduction in TiNb2O7[J]. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2019, 141(42): 16706-16725.
LIN C F, HU L, CHENG C B, et al. Nano-TiNb2O7/carbon nanotubes composite anode for enhanced lithium-ion storage[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2018, 260: 65-72.
YANG C, DENG S J, LIN C F, et al. Porous TiNb24O62 microspheres as high-performance anode materials for lithium-ion batteries of electric vehicles[J]. Nanoscale, 2016, 8(44): 18792-18799.
GUO B K, YU X Q, SUN X G, et al. A long-life lithium-ion battery with a highly porous TiNb2O7 anode for large-scale electrical energy storage[J]. Energy & Environmental Science, 2014, 7(7): 2220-2226.
YU H X, LAN H, YAN L, et al. TiNb2O7 hollow nanofiber anode with superior electrochemical performance in rechargeable lithium ion batteries[J]. Nano Energy, 2017, 38: 109-117.
WU X Y, MIAO J, HAN W Z, et al. Investigation on Ti2Nb10O29 anode material for lithium-ion batteries[J]. Electrochemistry Communications, 2012, 25: 39-42.
HUANG H J, NIEDERBERGER M. Towards fast-charging technologies in Li+/Na+ storage: from the perspectives of pseudocapacitive materials and non-aqueous hybrid capacitors[J]. Nanoscale, 2019, 11(41): 19225-19240.
LOU S F, CHENG X Q, GAO J L, et al. Pseudocapacitive Li+ intercalation in porous Ti2Nb10O29 nanospheres enables ultra-fast lithium storage[J]. Energy Storage Materials, 2018, 11: 57-66.
AUGUSTYN V, COME J, LOWE M A, et al. High-rate electrochemical energy storage through Li+intercalation pseudocapacitance[J]. Nature Materials, 2013, 12(6): 518-522.
FU Q F, HOU J R, LU R H, et al. Electrospun Ti2Nb10O29 hollow nanofibers as high-performance anode materials for lithium-ion batteries[J]. Materials Letters, 2018, 214: 60-63.
LOU S F, MA Y L, CHENG X Q, et al. Facile synthesis of nanostructured TiNb2O7 anode materials with superior performance for high-rate lithium ion batteries[J]. Chemical Communications, 2015, 51(97): 17293-17296.
LI H S, SHEN L F, PANG G, et al. TiNb2O7 nanoparticles assembled into hierarchical microspheres as high-rate capability and long-cycle-life anode materials for lithium ion batteries[J]. Nanoscale, 2015, 7(2): 619-624.
LIU G Y, ZHAO L F, SUN R X, et al. Mesoporous TiNb2O7 microspheres as high performance anode materials for lithium-ion batteries with high-rate capability and long cycle-life[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2018, 259: 20-27.
LOU S F, CHENG X Q, ZHAO Y, et al. Superior performance of ordered macroporous TiNb2O7 anodes for lithium ion batteries: understanding from the structural and pseudocapacitive insights on achieving high rate capability[J]. Nano Energy, 2017, 34: 15-25.
YANG C, YU S, MA Y, et al. Cr3+ and Nb5+ co-doped Ti2Nb10O29 materials for high-performance lithium-ion storage[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2017, 360: 470-479.
CHENG Q S, LIANG J W, ZHU Y C, et al. Bulk Ti2Nb10O29 as long-life and high-power Li-ion battery anodes[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2014, 2(41): 17258-17262.
LIU G Y, ZHAO Y Y, TANG Y F, et al. In situ Sol-gel synthesis of Ti2Nb10O29/C nanoparticles with enhanced pseudocapacitive contribution for a high-rate lithium-ion battery[J]. Rare Metals, 2020, 39(9): 1063-1071.
YU H X, CHENG X, ZHU H J, et al. Deep insights into kinetics and structural evolution of nitrogen-doped carbon coated TiNb24O62 nanowires as high-performance lithium container[J]. Nano Energy, 2018, 54: 227-237.
TANG K, MU X K, VAN AKEN P A, et al. "Nano-Pearl-String" TiNb2O7 as anodes for rechargeable lithium batteries[J]. Advanced Energy Materials, 2013, 3(1): 49-53.
LI H S, SHEN L F, WANG J, et al. Three-dimensionally ordered porous TiNb2O7 nanotubes: a superior anode material for next generation hybrid supercapacitors[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2015, 3(32): 16785-16790.
YAO Z J, XIA X H, ZHANG S Z, et al. Oxygen defect boosted N-doped Ti2Nb10O29 anchored on core-branch carbon skeleton for both high-rate liquid & solid-state lithium ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Materials, 2020, 25: 555-562.
DENG S J, CHAO D L, ZHONG Y, et al. Vertical graphene/Ti2Nb10O29/hydrogen molybdenum bronze composite arrays for enhanced lithium ion storage[J]. Energy Storage Materials, 2018, 12: 137-144.
LIU G Y, JIN B, ZHANG R X, et al. Synthesis of Ti2Nb10O29/C composite as an anode material for lithium-ion batteries[J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2016, 41(33): 14807-14812.
ZHU G Z, LI Q, ZHAO Y H, et al. Nanoporous TiNb2O7/C composite microspheres with three-dimensional conductive network for long-cycle-life and high-rate-capability anode materials for lithium-ion batteries[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2017, 9(47): 41258-41264.
LI S, CAO X, SCHMIDT C N, et al. TiNb2O7/graphene composites as high-rate anode materials for lithium/sodium ion batteries[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2016, 4(11): 4242-4251.
LIU X D, WANG H, ZHANG S Y, et al. Design of well-defined porous Ti2Nb10O29/C microspheres assembled from nanoparticles as anode materials for high-rate lithium ion batteries[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2018, 292: 759-768.
MAO W T, LIU K C, GUO G, et al. Preparation and electrochemical performance of Ti2Nb10O29/Ag composite as anode materials for lithium ion batteries[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2017, 253: 396-402.
LIU G Y, LIU X D, ZHAO Y Y, et al. Synthesis of Ag-coated TiNb2O7 composites with excellent electrochemical properties for lithium-ion battery[J]. Materials Letters, 2017, 197: 38-40.
SHI K Y, ZHITOMIRSKY I. Fabrication of polypyrrole-coated carbon nanotubes using oxidant-surfactant nanocrystals for supercapacitor electrodes with high mass loading and enhanced performance[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2013, 5(24): 13161-13170.
KIM H, LEE Y, BYUN D, et al. TiNb2O7 microsphere anchored by polydopamine-modified graphene oxide as a superior anode material in lithium-ion batteries[J]. International Journal of Energy Research, 2020, 44(6): 4986-4996.
JO C, KIM Y, HWANG J, et al. Block copolymer directed ordered mesostructured TiNb2O7 multimetallic oxide constructed of nanocrystals as high power Li-ion battery anodes[J]. Chemistry of Materials, 2014, 26(11): 3508-3514.
SONG H, KIM Y T. A Mo-doped TiNb2O7 anode for lithium-ion batteries with high rate capability due to charge redistribution[J]. Chemical Communications 2015, 51(48): 9849-9852.
TAKASHIMA T, TOJO T, INADA R, et al. Characterization of mixed titanium-niobium oxide Ti2Nb10O29 annealed in vacuum as anode material for lithium-ion battery[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2015, 276: 113-119.
LEE Y S, RYU K S. Study of the lithium diffusion properties and high rate performance of TiNb6O17 as an anode in lithium secondary battery[J]. Scientific Reports, 2017, 7(1): 16617.
YUAN Y, YU H X, CHENG X, et al. Preparation of TiNb6O17 nanospheres as high-performance anode candidates for lithium-ion storage[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2019, 374: 937-946.
SUN R X, TAO Y, SUN H X, et al. Simple synthesis of TiNb6O17/C composite toward high-rate lithium storage[J]. Journal of Materials Science, 2019, 54(24): 14825-14833.
WANG W L, OH B Y, PARK J Y, et al. Solid-state synthesis of Ti2Nb10O29/reduced graphene oxide composites with enhanced lithium storage capability[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2015, 300: 272-278.
YUAN T, LUO S N, SOULE L, et al. A hierarchical Ti2Nb10O29 composite electrode for highpower lithium-ion batteries and capacitors[J]. Materials Today, 2021, 45: 8-19.
YAO M, LIU A, XING C X, et al. Asymmetric supercapacitor comprising a core-shell TiNb2O7@MoS2/C anode and a high voltage ionogel electrolyte[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020, 394.
YAO Z J, XIA X H, ZHANG Y, et al. Superior high-rate lithium-ion storage on Ti2Nb10O29 arrays via synergistic TiC/C skeleton and N-doped carbon shell[J]. Nano Energy, 2018, 54: 304-312.
SHEN S H, GUO W H, XIE D, et al. A synergistic vertical graphene skeleton and S-C shell to construct high-performance TiNb2O7-based core/shell arrays[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2018, 6(41): 20195-20204.
LIU M, DONG H C, ZHANG S, et al. Three-dimensional porous TiNb2O7/CNT-KB composite microspheres as lithium-ion battery anode material[J]. ChemElectroChem, 2019, 6(15): 3959-3965.
BUANNIC L, COLIN J F, CHAPUIS M, et al. Electrochemical performances and gassing behavior of high surface area titanium niobium oxides[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2016, 4(29): 11531-11541.
JIAO X Y, HAO Q L, XIA X F, et al. Boosting long-cycle-life energy storage with holey graphene supported TiNb2O7 network nanostructure for lithium ion hybrid supercapacitors[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2018, 403: 66-75.
WANG X F, SHEN G Z. Intercalation pseudo-capacitive TiNb2O7@carbon electrode for high-performance lithium ion hybrid electrochemical supercapacitors with ultrahigh energy density[J]. Nano Energy, 2015, 15: 104-115.
... 目前商业锂离子电池通常采用石墨作为负极,由于其嵌锂电位与金属锂电位非常接近(0.1 V vs. Li/Li+),加之相对较低的嵌锂动力学性能,当充电电流较大时,极易在电池内部发生电化学极化,导致石墨负极表面有不可逆的金属锂沉积,这不仅降低了电池的循环寿命,而且形成的“锂枝晶”可能刺穿隔膜导致电池内短路,进而造成电池安全隐患[1].因此,开发新型负极材料,使其不仅在大电流下仍保持良好的嵌/脱锂动力学性能,而且具有安全嵌锂电位,是实现锂离子电池应用于可快充动力电池的前提. ...
... [22];(b) 由“Le Bail”计算出的晶胞体积V和晶格参数b (x由容量得出;空心圆:放电时;实心点:充电时)[22];(c-f) TiNb2O7在放电过程中的锂化过程[23]:(c) TiNb2O7,(d) Li0.88TiNb2O7,(e) Li2.67TiNb2O7,(f) Li4TiNb2O7;(g)Ti2Nb10O29电极材料第一圈充/放电曲线[24];(h) Ti2Nb10O29电极材料在电压窗口为1.0~2.5 V的循环伏安曲线[24]Structural changes of LixTiNb2O7 during Li insertion-extraction(a-b). (a) in situ XRD patterns collected during initial discharge and charge at a constant current rate of C/8 between 1.0 V and 3.0 V[22]; (b) Unit cell volume V and lattice parameter b calculated from “Le Bail fitting” as a function of “x” in LixTiNb2O7 (“x” is derived from capacity obtained; open circle: during discharge; solid dot: during charge)[22]; (c-f) lithiation process of TiNb2O7 during discharge process[23]: (c) TiNb2O7, (d) Li0.88TiNb2O7, (e) Li2.67TiNb2O7, (f) Li4TiNb2O7; (g) first discharge/charge curve for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes[24]; (h) cyclic voltammogram curves for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes in voltage range of 1.0~2.5 V[24]Fig. 21.2.2 TNO的赝电容特性
... [22];(c-f) TiNb2O7在放电过程中的锂化过程[23]:(c) TiNb2O7,(d) Li0.88TiNb2O7,(e) Li2.67TiNb2O7,(f) Li4TiNb2O7;(g)Ti2Nb10O29电极材料第一圈充/放电曲线[24];(h) Ti2Nb10O29电极材料在电压窗口为1.0~2.5 V的循环伏安曲线[24]Structural changes of LixTiNb2O7 during Li insertion-extraction(a-b). (a) in situ XRD patterns collected during initial discharge and charge at a constant current rate of C/8 between 1.0 V and 3.0 V[22]; (b) Unit cell volume V and lattice parameter b calculated from “Le Bail fitting” as a function of “x” in LixTiNb2O7 (“x” is derived from capacity obtained; open circle: during discharge; solid dot: during charge)[22]; (c-f) lithiation process of TiNb2O7 during discharge process[23]: (c) TiNb2O7, (d) Li0.88TiNb2O7, (e) Li2.67TiNb2O7, (f) Li4TiNb2O7; (g) first discharge/charge curve for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes[24]; (h) cyclic voltammogram curves for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes in voltage range of 1.0~2.5 V[24]Fig. 21.2.2 TNO的赝电容特性
... [22]; (b) Unit cell volume V and lattice parameter b calculated from “Le Bail fitting” as a function of “x” in LixTiNb2O7 (“x” is derived from capacity obtained; open circle: during discharge; solid dot: during charge)[22]; (c-f) lithiation process of TiNb2O7 during discharge process[23]: (c) TiNb2O7, (d) Li0.88TiNb2O7, (e) Li2.67TiNb2O7, (f) Li4TiNb2O7; (g) first discharge/charge curve for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes[24]; (h) cyclic voltammogram curves for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes in voltage range of 1.0~2.5 V[24]Fig. 21.2.2 TNO的赝电容特性
... [22]; (c-f) lithiation process of TiNb2O7 during discharge process[23]: (c) TiNb2O7, (d) Li0.88TiNb2O7, (e) Li2.67TiNb2O7, (f) Li4TiNb2O7; (g) first discharge/charge curve for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes[24]; (h) cyclic voltammogram curves for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes in voltage range of 1.0~2.5 V[24]Fig. 21.2.2 TNO的赝电容特性
... [23]:(c) TiNb2O7,(d) Li0.88TiNb2O7,(e) Li2.67TiNb2O7,(f) Li4TiNb2O7;(g)Ti2Nb10O29电极材料第一圈充/放电曲线[24];(h) Ti2Nb10O29电极材料在电压窗口为1.0~2.5 V的循环伏安曲线[24]Structural changes of LixTiNb2O7 during Li insertion-extraction(a-b). (a) in situ XRD patterns collected during initial discharge and charge at a constant current rate of C/8 between 1.0 V and 3.0 V[22]; (b) Unit cell volume V and lattice parameter b calculated from “Le Bail fitting” as a function of “x” in LixTiNb2O7 (“x” is derived from capacity obtained; open circle: during discharge; solid dot: during charge)[22]; (c-f) lithiation process of TiNb2O7 during discharge process[23]: (c) TiNb2O7, (d) Li0.88TiNb2O7, (e) Li2.67TiNb2O7, (f) Li4TiNb2O7; (g) first discharge/charge curve for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes[24]; (h) cyclic voltammogram curves for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes in voltage range of 1.0~2.5 V[24]Fig. 21.2.2 TNO的赝电容特性
... [23]: (c) TiNb2O7, (d) Li0.88TiNb2O7, (e) Li2.67TiNb2O7, (f) Li4TiNb2O7; (g) first discharge/charge curve for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes[24]; (h) cyclic voltammogram curves for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes in voltage range of 1.0~2.5 V[24]Fig. 21.2.2 TNO的赝电容特性
... [24];(h) Ti2Nb10O29电极材料在电压窗口为1.0~2.5 V的循环伏安曲线[24]Structural changes of LixTiNb2O7 during Li insertion-extraction(a-b). (a) in situ XRD patterns collected during initial discharge and charge at a constant current rate of C/8 between 1.0 V and 3.0 V[22]; (b) Unit cell volume V and lattice parameter b calculated from “Le Bail fitting” as a function of “x” in LixTiNb2O7 (“x” is derived from capacity obtained; open circle: during discharge; solid dot: during charge)[22]; (c-f) lithiation process of TiNb2O7 during discharge process[23]: (c) TiNb2O7, (d) Li0.88TiNb2O7, (e) Li2.67TiNb2O7, (f) Li4TiNb2O7; (g) first discharge/charge curve for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes[24]; (h) cyclic voltammogram curves for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes in voltage range of 1.0~2.5 V[24]Fig. 21.2.2 TNO的赝电容特性
... [24]Structural changes of LixTiNb2O7 during Li insertion-extraction(a-b). (a) in situ XRD patterns collected during initial discharge and charge at a constant current rate of C/8 between 1.0 V and 3.0 V[22]; (b) Unit cell volume V and lattice parameter b calculated from “Le Bail fitting” as a function of “x” in LixTiNb2O7 (“x” is derived from capacity obtained; open circle: during discharge; solid dot: during charge)[22]; (c-f) lithiation process of TiNb2O7 during discharge process[23]: (c) TiNb2O7, (d) Li0.88TiNb2O7, (e) Li2.67TiNb2O7, (f) Li4TiNb2O7; (g) first discharge/charge curve for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes[24]; (h) cyclic voltammogram curves for Ti2Nb10O29 electrodes in voltage range of 1.0~2.5 V[24]Fig. 21.2.2 TNO的赝电容特性
Different pseudocapacitance mechanisms[25]: (a) monolayer adsorption pseudocapacitance (underpotential deposition), (b) surface redox pseudocapacitance, and (c) intercalation pseudocapacitance; Calculation of capacitance contribution by CV[26]: (d) separation of totalcurrent (solid line) and capacitive currents (shaded regions) at 0.5 mV/s, (e) contribution ratio of capacitive and diffusion-controlled charge at various scan ratesFig. 32 合成方法
... [25]: (a) monolayer adsorption pseudocapacitance (underpotential deposition), (b) surface redox pseudocapacitance, and (c) intercalation pseudocapacitance; Calculation of capacitance contribution by CV[26]: (d) separation of totalcurrent (solid line) and capacitive currents (shaded regions) at 0.5 mV/s, (e) contribution ratio of capacitive and diffusion-controlled charge at various scan ratesFig. 32 合成方法
... [26]:(d) 0.5 mV/s下总电流(实线)和电容电流(阴影区域),(e) 不同扫描速率下电容和扩散控制电荷的贡献率Different pseudocapacitance mechanisms[25]: (a) monolayer adsorption pseudocapacitance (underpotential deposition), (b) surface redox pseudocapacitance, and (c) intercalation pseudocapacitance; Calculation of capacitance contribution by CV[26]: (d) separation of totalcurrent (solid line) and capacitive currents (shaded regions) at 0.5 mV/s, (e) contribution ratio of capacitive and diffusion-controlled charge at various scan ratesFig. 32 合成方法
... [26]: (d) separation of totalcurrent (solid line) and capacitive currents (shaded regions) at 0.5 mV/s, (e) contribution ratio of capacitive and diffusion-controlled charge at various scan ratesFig. 32 合成方法
... [28];(d) Ti2Nb10O29的TEM图[28](a) and (b) Bright field TEM images of TiNb2O7 nanofibers[37]; (c) SEM image of Ti2Nb10O29[28]; (d) TEM image of Ti2Nb10O29[28]Fig. 42.4 模板法
... [37];(c) Ti2Nb10O29的SEM图[28];(d) Ti2Nb10O29的TEM图[28](a) and (b) Bright field TEM images of TiNb2O7 nanofibers[37]; (c) SEM image of Ti2Nb10O29[28]; (d) TEM image of Ti2Nb10O29[28]Fig. 42.4 模板法
... [39]; (b) TiNb2O7||石墨烯锂离子电容器在不同电流密度下的恒电流充放电曲线[39];(c) 在1 A/g时循环圈数与电容保持率和库仑效率的关系[39]; (d) TNO/HG||AC在0.2 A/g时的长循环性能[64]; (e) TNO/HG||AC与其他钛基和铌基的锂离子电容器性能比较[64](a) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of individual composite electrode (3D-O-P-TNO and graphene grass) vs. Li/Li+ reference electrode, along with voltage profile of 3D-O-P-TNO||graphene grass hybrid supercapacitor[39]; (b) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of TiNb2O7||graphene hybrid supercapacitor at different current densities[39]; (c) relationship between cycle number and capacitance retention and coulombic efficiency at 1 A/g[39]; (d) cycling performance of TNO/HG||AC at 0.2 A/g[64], (e) ragone plots of TNO/HG||AC compared with other Ti-and Nb-based Li-HSCs[64]Fig. 95 结语与未来发展方向5.1 结语
... [39];(c) 在1 A/g时循环圈数与电容保持率和库仑效率的关系[39]; (d) TNO/HG||AC在0.2 A/g时的长循环性能[64]; (e) TNO/HG||AC与其他钛基和铌基的锂离子电容器性能比较[64](a) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of individual composite electrode (3D-O-P-TNO and graphene grass) vs. Li/Li+ reference electrode, along with voltage profile of 3D-O-P-TNO||graphene grass hybrid supercapacitor[39]; (b) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of TiNb2O7||graphene hybrid supercapacitor at different current densities[39]; (c) relationship between cycle number and capacitance retention and coulombic efficiency at 1 A/g[39]; (d) cycling performance of TNO/HG||AC at 0.2 A/g[64], (e) ragone plots of TNO/HG||AC compared with other Ti-and Nb-based Li-HSCs[64]Fig. 95 结语与未来发展方向5.1 结语
... [39]; (d) TNO/HG||AC在0.2 A/g时的长循环性能[64]; (e) TNO/HG||AC与其他钛基和铌基的锂离子电容器性能比较[64](a) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of individual composite electrode (3D-O-P-TNO and graphene grass) vs. Li/Li+ reference electrode, along with voltage profile of 3D-O-P-TNO||graphene grass hybrid supercapacitor[39]; (b) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of TiNb2O7||graphene hybrid supercapacitor at different current densities[39]; (c) relationship between cycle number and capacitance retention and coulombic efficiency at 1 A/g[39]; (d) cycling performance of TNO/HG||AC at 0.2 A/g[64], (e) ragone plots of TNO/HG||AC compared with other Ti-and Nb-based Li-HSCs[64]Fig. 95 结语与未来发展方向5.1 结语
... [39]; (b) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of TiNb2O7||graphene hybrid supercapacitor at different current densities[39]; (c) relationship between cycle number and capacitance retention and coulombic efficiency at 1 A/g[39]; (d) cycling performance of TNO/HG||AC at 0.2 A/g[64], (e) ragone plots of TNO/HG||AC compared with other Ti-and Nb-based Li-HSCs[64]Fig. 95 结语与未来发展方向5.1 结语
... [39]; (c) relationship between cycle number and capacitance retention and coulombic efficiency at 1 A/g[39]; (d) cycling performance of TNO/HG||AC at 0.2 A/g[64], (e) ragone plots of TNO/HG||AC compared with other Ti-and Nb-based Li-HSCs[64]Fig. 95 结语与未来发展方向5.1 结语
... [39]; (d) cycling performance of TNO/HG||AC at 0.2 A/g[64], (e) ragone plots of TNO/HG||AC compared with other Ti-and Nb-based Li-HSCs[64]Fig. 95 结语与未来发展方向5.1 结语
... [41]; (d) 全电池性能的NMC软包电池,电池放置前进行的第1次循环和第2次充电的电压曲线[62]; (e) 在45 ℃全充状态下电池的气体产生量,黑线和正方形代表LTO||NMC软包电池,蓝线和圆圈代表TNO7-32||NMC软包电池,红线和三角形代表TNO76||NMC软包电池,黄线和菱形代表不对称的TNO7-6/NMC软包电池[62](a) and (b) VG/TNO/HMB||LiFePO4 rate capabilities; (c) cyclic stability at 5 C[41]; (d) full cell performances of NMC pouch cells, voltage profile of first cycle and second charge performed before cell storage[62]; (e) gas production during storage of charged cells at 45 ℃. Black line and square represent LTO||NMC system, blue line and circle represent TNO7-32||NMC system, red line and triangle represent TNO7-6||NMC system, and yellow line and diamond represent asymmetric TNO7-6||NMC cell[62]Fig. 8
... [41]; (d) full cell performances of NMC pouch cells, voltage profile of first cycle and second charge performed before cell storage[62]; (e) gas production during storage of charged cells at 45 ℃. Black line and square represent LTO||NMC system, blue line and circle represent TNO7-32||NMC system, red line and triangle represent TNO7-6||NMC system, and yellow line and diamond represent asymmetric TNO7-6||NMC cell[62]Fig. 8
... [44](a) SEM images of TNO/G composites; (b) TEM images of TNO/G composites; (c) rate capabilities of pure TNO and TNO/G at different current densities; (d) capacity retention of TNO/G anode at various rates: discharge current rate fixed at 1 C (filled data points stand for discharge capacities; nonfilled data points stand for charge capacities)[44]Fig. 73.5 金属材料复合
(a) and (b) VG/TNO/HMB||LiFePO4 rate capabilities; (c) cyclic stability at 5 C[41]; (d) full cell performances of NMC pouch cells, voltage profile of first cycle and second charge performed before cell storage[62]; (e) gas production during storage of charged cells at 45 ℃. Black line and square represent LTO||NMC system, blue line and circle represent TNO7-32||NMC system, red line and triangle represent TNO7-6||NMC system, and yellow line and diamond represent asymmetric TNO7-6||NMC cell[62]Fig. 8
... [62](a) and (b) VG/TNO/HMB||LiFePO4 rate capabilities; (c) cyclic stability at 5 C[41]; (d) full cell performances of NMC pouch cells, voltage profile of first cycle and second charge performed before cell storage[62]; (e) gas production during storage of charged cells at 45 ℃. Black line and square represent LTO||NMC system, blue line and circle represent TNO7-32||NMC system, red line and triangle represent TNO7-6||NMC system, and yellow line and diamond represent asymmetric TNO7-6||NMC cell[62]Fig. 8
... [62]; (e) gas production during storage of charged cells at 45 ℃. Black line and square represent LTO||NMC system, blue line and circle represent TNO7-32||NMC system, red line and triangle represent TNO7-6||NMC system, and yellow line and diamond represent asymmetric TNO7-6||NMC cell[62]Fig. 8
... [64]; (e) TNO/HG||AC与其他钛基和铌基的锂离子电容器性能比较[64](a) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of individual composite electrode (3D-O-P-TNO and graphene grass) vs. Li/Li+ reference electrode, along with voltage profile of 3D-O-P-TNO||graphene grass hybrid supercapacitor[39]; (b) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of TiNb2O7||graphene hybrid supercapacitor at different current densities[39]; (c) relationship between cycle number and capacitance retention and coulombic efficiency at 1 A/g[39]; (d) cycling performance of TNO/HG||AC at 0.2 A/g[64], (e) ragone plots of TNO/HG||AC compared with other Ti-and Nb-based Li-HSCs[64]Fig. 95 结语与未来发展方向5.1 结语
... [64](a) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of individual composite electrode (3D-O-P-TNO and graphene grass) vs. Li/Li+ reference electrode, along with voltage profile of 3D-O-P-TNO||graphene grass hybrid supercapacitor[39]; (b) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of TiNb2O7||graphene hybrid supercapacitor at different current densities[39]; (c) relationship between cycle number and capacitance retention and coulombic efficiency at 1 A/g[39]; (d) cycling performance of TNO/HG||AC at 0.2 A/g[64], (e) ragone plots of TNO/HG||AC compared with other Ti-and Nb-based Li-HSCs[64]Fig. 95 结语与未来发展方向5.1 结语