Aqueous organic flow batteries have attracted more and more attention from researchers in recent years due to their potential advantages such as adjustable active molecular structure and properties and low cost. However, aqueous organic flow batteries are faced with a wide variety of active molecules, unclear electrochemical reaction mechanisms, and poor stability and many side reactions of the molecules. In-situ characterization techniques, especially in-situ spectroscopy techniques, are essential for analyzing the electrochemical reaction processes and mechanisms of organic active molecules and optimizing the internal structure of the battery. This paper reviews the research progress of a series of in-situ spectroscopy characterization techniques in aqueous organic flow batteries in recent years, focusing on the role of in-situ nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in revealing the structural evolution of molecules during electrochemical reactions. the in-situ infrared spectroscopy characterizing the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between molecules and water and the molecular structure changes during charging and discharging. The periodic changes of molecular signals in the in-situ ultraviolet spectroscopy can determine the stability of molecular electrochemical reactions, and in-situ electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to calculate the free radical concentrations and reaction rate constants. In addition, through the combination of several in-situ characterization methods, it is expected to achieve functional complementarity, so as to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the electrochemical reaction mechanism of the battery, the operating state of the battery, and the reaction process of the active material on the electrode surface. Finally, we hope that the in-situ spectroscopy characterization techniques introduced in this article can provide valuable insights for the research of aqueous organic flow batteries and will further promote the development and application of battery technology.
ZHANG Yonghui. Research progress on in-situ characterization techniques for aqueous organic flow batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 1-14
Fig.2
Schematics of the two in situ NMR setups. a In the operando detection setup, study species in flow via probing the electrolyte in the battery cell. b In the on-line detection setup, study species in flow via probing the electrolyte in the flow path.
Fig.3
a In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of anolyte acquired during the ferrocyanide(ii)/anthraquinone (AQ) flow battery cycling. b Experimentally determined fraction of DHAQ•3- radicals as a function of SOC determined via the on-line (blue triangles) and operando (purple squares) detection methods. c In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of catholyte acquired during electrochemical cycling.[44]. d and e In situ NMR spectra acquired during several potentiostatic cycling. f Proton labels of the several anthraquinone anions[46]. g In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of MB acquired during the MB/V flow battery cycling h Current and potential profiles MB-V full cell with a current density of 10 mA cm-2. i Molecular structures of oxidation (red), radical (yellow) and reduction (blue)[26].
Fig.4
a Schematic diagram of operando reflected IR in the three-electrode system. e Schematic diagram of flow battery in-situ infrared detection. The method can be divided into (b) On-line transmission infrared; (c) On-line internal reflection exfrared and (d) On-line internal reflection infrared.
Fig.5
a Operando FTIR spectra of 2,6-DHAQ during reduction and oxidation processes in the first cycle of CV scan. b Operando FTIR spectra of 1,5-DHAQ during reduction and oxidation processes in the first cycle of CV scan. c The hydrogen bond-mediated degradation process of 2,6-DHAQ. The hydrogen bond-mediated degradation process of 1,5-DHAQ [15]. d On-line ATR-FTIR spectra of DHPS electrolyte recorded during resting, after adding excess zinc and during discharge process [51].
图6
a PSPR作正极和ZnCl2 作负极组成的水系有机液流电池示意图。B液流电池的充放电曲线(左)和电池在充放电过程中的原位紫外光谱(右)[53]。
Fig.6
a Representative flow battery assembled with PSPR posolyte paired with ZnCl2 negolyte. b Charge/discharge profiles (left) of PSPR cell and in situ UV-vis spectra of PSPR during charge/discharge process (right)[53].
Fig.7
Application of in-situ fluorescence microscope. a Operando advection-reduction profiles contrasting with mean field theory (MFT) map. b Fluorescent particle flow imaging within a porous carbon electrode. c Spatial flow field-porous electrode flow profiles [58].
Fig.8
EPR images. a Proposed mechanism. b EPR detection for radical. c 1/c(radical) versus t plot to probe the reaction of the electrochemically generated radical anion [27]. d EPR spectra of different SOC electrolyte. e spectra of EPR intensity comparisons among 0 h, 16 h and 24 h. f The experiment and simulation EPR spectra. molecular structure used for the simulation is shown, together with its associated hyperfine coupling constants extracted from the simulation [26].
图9
a,d 10 mM DHAQ 与15 mM K4[Fe(CN)6] and 3.75 mM K3[Fe(CN)6] 组装的全电池电压随时间变化的曲线图。b负极电解质芳环区的NMR谱图。c负极电解液的EPR谱图。e,f DHAQ3–•自由基浓度随时间变化的分别通过NMR光谱中水共振的体磁化率位移和EPR实验中的自旋计数来估计。d自由基的分数作为总浓度10,100和200mm DHAQ的电荷状态的函数。
Fig.9
a, d Voltage of a 10 mM DHAQ versus 15 mM K4[Fe(CN)6] and 3.75 mM K3[Fe(CN)6] full cell as a function of time. b NMR spectra of the anolyte in the aromatic region. c EPR spectra of the anolyte. e, f Concentrations of DHAQ3–• radical anions as a function of time, estimated from the bulk magnetic susceptibility shift of the water resonance in the NMR spectra and by spin counting in the EPR experiments, respectively. d Fractions of radicals as a function of state of charge for total concentrations of 10, 100, and 200 mM DHAQ.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds. Shukla, P.R. et al.) (Cambridge University Press, 2022).
LENNON A, LUNAR M, HALLAM B, et al. The aluminium demand risk of terawatt photovoltaics for net zero emissions by 2050 [J]. Nature Sustainability, 2022, 5(4): 357-363.
THOMPSON H. The geopolitics of fossil fuels and renewables reshape the world [J]. Nature, 2022, 603(7901): 364.
CHEN H S, LI H, MA W T, et al. Research progress of energy storage technology in China in 2021 [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(3): 1052-1076.
TANG A, YAN C W. Modelling and simulation of flow batteries: Recent progress and prospects [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(9): 2866-2878.
WANG X, YE Q. The aggravation of side reactions caused by insufficient localized liquid supply in an all-vanadium redox flow battery stack [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(5): 1455-1467.
WANG X L, ZHANG Y, ZHANG H M. Latest Progresses in Vanadium Flow Battery Technologies and Applications [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2015, 21(5): 433-440.
YANG L L, LIAO W J, SU Q, et al. The research &development status of vanadium redox flow battery [J]. Journal of Electrochemistry, 2013, 2(2): 140-145.
DING Y, ZHANG C, ZHANG L, et al. Molecular engineering of organic electroactive materials for redox flow batteries [J]. Chemical Society reviews, 2018, 47(1): 69-103.
AMINI K, KERR E F, GEORGE T Y, et al. An Extremely Stable, Highly Soluble Monosubstituted Anthraquinone for Aqueous Redox Flow Batteries [J]. Adv Funct Mater, 2023: 2211338.
WU M, BAHARI M, FELL E M, et al. High-performance anthraquinone with potentially low cost for aqueous redox flow batteries [J]. J Mater Chem A, 2021, 9(47): 26709-26716.
WU M, JING Y, WONG A A, et al. Extremely Stable Anthraquinone Negolytes Synthesized from Common Precursors [J]. Chem-Us, 2020, 6(6): 1432-1442.
HU B, HU M, LUO J, et al. A Stable, Low Permeable TEMPO Catholyte for Aqueous Total Organic Redox Flow Batteries [J]. Adv Energy Mater, 2021, 12(8): 2102577.
LIU Y, GOULET M-A, TONG L, et al. A Long-Lifetime All-Organic Aqueous Flow Battery Utilizing TMAP-TEMPO Radical [J]. Chem-Us, 2019, 5(7): 1861-1870.
ZHOU W, LIU W, QIN M, et al. Fundamental properties of TEMPO-based catholytes for aqueous redox flow batteries: effects of substituent groups and electrolytes on electrochemical properties, solubilities and battery performance [J]. RSC Adv, 2020, 10(37): 21839-21844.
HUANG M B, HU S Z, YUAN X Z, et al. Five-Membered-Heterocycle Bridged Viologen with High Voltage and Superior Stability for Flow Battery [J]. Adv Funct Mater, 2022, 32(16): 2111744.
LI H, FAN H, HU B, et al. Spatial Structure Regulation: A Rod-Shaped Viologen Enables Long Lifetime in Aqueous Redox Flow Batteries [J]. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 2021, 60(52): 26971-26977.
XU J C, PANG S, WANG X Y, et al. Ultrastable aqueous phenazine flow batteries with high capacity operated at elevated temperatures [J]. Joule, 2021, 5(9): 2437-2449.
ZHANG L, QIAN Y, FENG R, et al. Reversible redox chemistry in azobenzene-based organic molecules for high-capacity and long-life nonaqueous redox flow batteries [J]. Nat Commun, 2020, 11(1): 3843.
KWON G, LEE S, HWANG J, et al. Multi-redox Molecule for High-Energy Redox Flow Batteries [J]. Joule, 2018, 2(9): 1771-1782.
ZHANG Y, LI F, LI T, et al. Insights into an air-stable methylene blue catholyte towards kW-scale practical aqueous organic flow batteries [J]. Energy & Environmental Science, 2023, 16(1): 231-240.
XU D H, ZHANG C J, LI Y D. Molecular engineering the naphthalimide compounds as High-Capacity anolyte for nonaqueous redox flow batteries [J]. Chem Eng J, 2022, 439: 135766.
PARK M, RYU J, WANG W, et al. Material design and engineering of next-generation flow-battery technologies [J]. Nature Reviews Materials, 2016, 2(1): 1-18.
LIANG D Y, BAO T T, GAO T H, et al. Research progress of lithium ion battery solid-electrolyte interface(SEI) [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2018, 7(3): 418-423.
NIE K H, GENG Z, WANG Q Y, et al. Experimental measurement and analysis methods of cyclic voltammetry for lithium batteries [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2018, 7(3): 539-553.
LING S G, XU J R, LI H. Experimental measurement and analysis methods of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy for lithium batteries [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2018, 7(4): 732-749.
LI M, ODOM S A, PANCOAST A R, et al. Experimental Protocols for Studying Organic Non-aqueous Redox Flow Batteries [J]. Acs Energy Lett, 2021, 6(11): 3932-3943.
ROZNYATOVSKAYA N V, ROZNYATOVSKY V A, HOHNE C C, et al. The role of phosphate additive in stabilization of sulphuric-acid-based vanadium(V) electrolyte for all-vanadium redox-flow batteries [J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2017, 363: 234-243.
ABBAS S, HWANG J, KIM H, et al. Enzyme-Inspired Formulation of the Electrolyte for Stable and Efficient Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries at High Temperatures [J]. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2019, 11(30): 26842-26853.
LIU W Q, ZHAO Z M, LI T Y, et al. A high potential biphenol derivative cathode: toward a highly stable air-insensitive aqueous organic flow battery [J]. Sci Bull, 2021, 66(5): 457-463.
PAN M, LU Y, LU S, et al. The Dual Role of Bridging Phenylene in an Extended Bipyridine System for High-Voltage and Stable Two-Electron Storage in Redox Flow Batteries [J]. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2021, 13(37): 44174-44183.
DING Y, ZHANG C K, ZHANG L Y, et al. Insights into Hydrotropic Solubilization for Hybrid Ion Redox Flow Batteries [J]. Acs Energy Lett, 2018, 3(11): 2641-2648.
LV Y Q, ZHAO M, DU Y D, et al. Engineering a self-adaptive electric double layer on both electrodes for high-performance zinc metal batteries [J]. Energy & Environmental Science, 2022, 15(11): 4748-4760.
ZHAO E W, SHELLARD E J K, KLUSENER P A A, et al. In situ bulk magnetization measurements reveal the state of charge of redox flow batteries [J]. Chem Commun (Camb), 2022, 58(9): 1342-1345.
JING Y, ZHAO E W, GOULET M A, et al. In situ electrochemical recomposition of decomposed redox-active species in aqueous organic flow batteries [J]. Nat Chem, 2022, 14(10): 1103-1109.
FULFER K D, KURODA D G. Solvation Structure and Dynamics of the Lithium Ion in Organic Carbonate-Based Electrolytes: A Time-Dependent Infrared Spectroscopy Study [J]. J Phys Chem C, 2016, 120(42): 24011-24022.
CHANG N, LI T, LI R, et al. An aqueous hybrid electrolyte for low-temperature zinc-based energy storage devices [J]. Energy & Environmental Science, 2020, 13(10): 3527-3535.
DUAN W, VEMURI R S, MILSHTEIN J D, et al. A symmetric organic-based nonaqueous redox flow battery and its state of charge diagnostics by FTIR [J]. J Mater Chem A, 2016, 4(15): 5448-5456.
LI J T, ZHOU Z Y, BROADWELL I, et al. In-situ infrared spectroscopic studies of electrochemical energy conversion and storage [J]. Acc Chem Res, 2012, 45(4): 485-494.
NOLTE O, GEITNER R, HAGER M D, et al. IR Spectroscopy as a Method for Online Electrolyte State Assessment in RFBs [J]. Adv Energy Mater, 2021, 11(28): 2100931.
HU B, TANG Y, LUO J, et al. Improved radical stability of viologen anolytes in aqueous organic redox flow batteries [J]. Chem Commun (Camb), 2018, 54(50): 6871-6874.
YANG Z, LUO Y, GAO X, et al. High‐Safety All‐Solid‐State Lithium‐Ion Battery Working at Ambient Temperature with In Situ UV‐Curing Polymer Electrolyte on the Electrode [J]. ChemElectroChem, 2020, 7(12): 2599-2607.
CHEN Z, MEI S, LI W, et al. Study of multi-electron redox mechanism via electrochromic behavior in hexaazatrinaphthylene-based polymer as the cathode of lithium–organic batteries [J]. J Mater Chem A, 2021, 9(47): 27010-27018.
WONG A A, AZIZ M J, RUBINSTEIN S. Direct Visualization of Electrochemical Reactions and Comparison of Commercial Carbon Papers in operando by Fluorescence Microscopy Using a Quinone-Based Flow Cell [J]. Ecs Transactions, 2017, 77(11): 153-161.
WONG A A, RUBINSTEIN S M, AZIZ M J. Direct visualization of electrochemical reactions and heterogeneous transport within porous electrodes in operando by fluorescence microscopy [J]. Cell Rep Phys Sci, 2021, 2(4): 100388.
XIN H, WANG H, ZHANG W, et al. In Operando Visualization and Dynamic Manipulation of Electrochemical Processes at the Electrode-Solution Interface [J]. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 2022, 61(36): e202206236.
ZHAO E W, JONSSON E, JETHWA R B, et al. Coupled In Situ NMR and EPR Studies Reveal the Electron Transfer Rate and Electrolyte Decomposition in Redox Flow Batteries [J]. J Am Chem Soc, 2021, 143(4): 1885-1895.
KLOD S, DUNSCH L. A combination of in situ ESR and in situ NMR spectroelectrochemistry for mechanistic studies of electrode reactions: the case of p-benzoquinone [J]. Magn Reson Chem, 2011, 49(11): 725-729.
MASUDA H, ISHIDA N, OGATA Y, et al. In situ visualization of Li concentration in all-solid-state lithium ion batteries using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry [J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2018, 400: 527-532.
YU Z, SHAO Y, MA L, et al. Revealing the Sulfur Redox Paths in a Li-S Battery by an In Situ Hyphenated Technique of Electrochemistry and Mass Spectrometry [J]. Adv Mater, 2022, 34(7): e2106618.
WANG J, DING T, WU K. Charge Transfer from n-Doped Nanocrystals: Mimicking Intermediate Events in Multielectron Photocatalysis [J]. J Am Chem Soc, 2018, 140(25): 7791-7794.
WANG J, DING T, WU K. Electron Transfer into Electron-Accumulated Nanocrystals: Mimicking Intermediate Events in Multielectron Photocatalysis II [J]. J Am Chem Soc, 2018, 140(32): 10117-10120.
a Schematic diagram of operando reflected IR in the three-electrode system. e Schematic diagram of flow battery in-situ infrared detection. The method can be divided into (b) On-line transmission infrared; (c) On-line internal reflection exfrared and (d) On-line internal reflection infrared.Fig.4
a Operando FTIR spectra of 2,6-DHAQ during reduction and oxidation processes in the first cycle of CV scan. b Operando FTIR spectra of 1,5-DHAQ during reduction and oxidation processes in the first cycle of CV scan. c The hydrogen bond-mediated degradation process of 2,6-DHAQ. The hydrogen bond-mediated degradation process of 1,5-DHAQ [15]. d On-line ATR-FTIR spectra of DHPS electrolyte recorded during resting, after adding excess zinc and during discharge process [51].Fig.5
... [26].a In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of anolyte acquired during the ferrocyanide(ii)/anthraquinone (AQ) flow battery cycling. b Experimentally determined fraction of DHAQ•3- radicals as a function of SOC determined via the on-line (blue triangles) and operando (purple squares) detection methods. c In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of catholyte acquired during electrochemical cycling.[44]. d and e In situ NMR spectra acquired during several potentiostatic cycling. f Proton labels of the several anthraquinone anions[46]. g In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of MB acquired during the MB/V flow battery cycling h Current and potential profiles MB-V full cell with a current density of 10 mA cm-2. i Molecular structures of oxidation (red), radical (yellow) and reduction (blue)[26].Fig.3
EPR images. a Proposed mechanism. b EPR detection for radical. c 1/c(radical) versus t plot to probe the reaction of the electrochemically generated radical anion [27]. d EPR spectra of different SOC electrolyte. e spectra of EPR intensity comparisons among 0 h, 16 h and 24 h. f The experiment and simulation EPR spectra. molecular structure used for the simulation is shown, together with its associated hyperfine coupling constants extracted from the simulation [26].Fig.8
EPR images. a Proposed mechanism. b EPR detection for radical. c 1/c(radical) versus t plot to probe the reaction of the electrochemically generated radical anion [27]. d EPR spectra of different SOC electrolyte. e spectra of EPR intensity comparisons among 0 h, 16 h and 24 h. f The experiment and simulation EPR spectra. molecular structure used for the simulation is shown, together with its associated hyperfine coupling constants extracted from the simulation [26].Fig.8
... [27]. d EPR spectra of different SOC electrolyte. e spectra of EPR intensity comparisons among 0 h, 16 h and 24 h. f The experiment and simulation EPR spectra. molecular structure used for the simulation is shown, together with its associated hyperfine coupling constants extracted from the simulation [26].Fig.8
... [44].c醌/铁液流电池电化学循环正极铁氰根电解液原位伪二维在线H谱[45].d-e 不同电压下的电化学原位NMR测试谱图.f 不同醌离子物种的质子标签[46]. g电池运行过程中的原位伪二维核磁 1H谱.h MB-V液流电池在10 mA cm-2 电流密度下恒流充放电的电压和电流循环曲线.i MB的氧化态(蓝色)、自由基态(黄色)和还原态(红色)的结构式[26].a In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of anolyte acquired during the ferrocyanide(ii)/anthraquinone (AQ) flow battery cycling. b Experimentally determined fraction of DHAQ•3- radicals as a function of SOC determined via the on-line (blue triangles) and operando (purple squares) detection methods. c In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of catholyte acquired during electrochemical cycling.[44]. d and e In situ NMR spectra acquired during several potentiostatic cycling. f Proton labels of the several anthraquinone anions[46]. g In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of MB acquired during the MB/V flow battery cycling h Current and potential profiles MB-V full cell with a current density of 10 mA cm-2. i Molecular structures of oxidation (red), radical (yellow) and reduction (blue)[26].Fig.3
... [44]. d and e In situ NMR spectra acquired during several potentiostatic cycling. f Proton labels of the several anthraquinone anions[46]. g In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of MB acquired during the MB/V flow battery cycling h Current and potential profiles MB-V full cell with a current density of 10 mA cm-2. i Molecular structures of oxidation (red), radical (yellow) and reduction (blue)[26].Fig.3
... [45].d-e 不同电压下的电化学原位NMR测试谱图.f 不同醌离子物种的质子标签[46]. g电池运行过程中的原位伪二维核磁 1H谱.h MB-V液流电池在10 mA cm-2 电流密度下恒流充放电的电压和电流循环曲线.i MB的氧化态(蓝色)、自由基态(黄色)和还原态(红色)的结构式[26].a In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of anolyte acquired during the ferrocyanide(ii)/anthraquinone (AQ) flow battery cycling. b Experimentally determined fraction of DHAQ•3- radicals as a function of SOC determined via the on-line (blue triangles) and operando (purple squares) detection methods. c In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of catholyte acquired during electrochemical cycling.[44]. d and e In situ NMR spectra acquired during several potentiostatic cycling. f Proton labels of the several anthraquinone anions[46]. g In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of MB acquired during the MB/V flow battery cycling h Current and potential profiles MB-V full cell with a current density of 10 mA cm-2. i Molecular structures of oxidation (red), radical (yellow) and reduction (blue)[26].Fig.3
... [46]. g电池运行过程中的原位伪二维核磁 1H谱.h MB-V液流电池在10 mA cm-2 电流密度下恒流充放电的电压和电流循环曲线.i MB的氧化态(蓝色)、自由基态(黄色)和还原态(红色)的结构式[26].a In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of anolyte acquired during the ferrocyanide(ii)/anthraquinone (AQ) flow battery cycling. b Experimentally determined fraction of DHAQ•3- radicals as a function of SOC determined via the on-line (blue triangles) and operando (purple squares) detection methods. c In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of catholyte acquired during electrochemical cycling.[44]. d and e In situ NMR spectra acquired during several potentiostatic cycling. f Proton labels of the several anthraquinone anions[46]. g In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of MB acquired during the MB/V flow battery cycling h Current and potential profiles MB-V full cell with a current density of 10 mA cm-2. i Molecular structures of oxidation (red), radical (yellow) and reduction (blue)[26].Fig.3
... [46]. g In situ pseudo-2D 1H NMR spectra of MB acquired during the MB/V flow battery cycling h Current and potential profiles MB-V full cell with a current density of 10 mA cm-2. i Molecular structures of oxidation (red), radical (yellow) and reduction (blue)[26].Fig.3
a Schematic diagram of operando reflected IR in the three-electrode system. e Schematic diagram of flow battery in-situ infrared detection. The method can be divided into (b) On-line transmission infrared; (c) On-line internal reflection exfrared and (d) On-line internal reflection infrared.Fig.4
a Operando FTIR spectra of 2,6-DHAQ during reduction and oxidation processes in the first cycle of CV scan. b Operando FTIR spectra of 1,5-DHAQ during reduction and oxidation processes in the first cycle of CV scan. c The hydrogen bond-mediated degradation process of 2,6-DHAQ. The hydrogen bond-mediated degradation process of 1,5-DHAQ [15]. d On-line ATR-FTIR spectra of DHPS electrolyte recorded during resting, after adding excess zinc and during discharge process [51].Fig.5
a PSPR作正极和ZnCl2 作负极组成的水系有机液流电池示意图.B液流电池的充放电曲线(左)和电池在充放电过程中的原位紫外光谱(右)[53].
a Representative flow battery assembled with PSPR posolyte paired with ZnCl2 negolyte. b Charge/discharge profiles (left) of PSPR cell and in situ UV-vis spectra of PSPR during charge/discharge process (right)[53].Fig.6
... [58].Application of in-situ fluorescence microscope. a Operando advection-reduction profiles contrasting with mean field theory (MFT) map. b Fluorescent particle flow imaging within a porous carbon electrode. c Spatial flow field-porous electrode flow profiles [58].Fig.74 电子顺磁共振(EPR)