Fig. 1

Arrhenius plot of aging behavior of 18650 type cells cycled in the temperature range of 20—70 ℃[23]"

Fig. 2

Soft pack batteries at different temperatures: (a) Life decay; (b) Coulombic efficiency; (c) CIE/h dependence on charging rate of pouch cells at different temperatures[13]"

Fig. 3

Impedance-capacity diagrams of cells under different conditions in the experiment[24]"

Fig. 4

(a)SOC-impedance curves of batteries at different charging rates；(b)Voltage relaxation curves after charging at different rates; (c) dV/dQ curves at different rates[18]"

Fig. 5

Three-electrode system containing lithium metal reference electrode[22]"

Fig. 6

(a) Differential voltage of the discharge curve (the relationship between DV, dV/dQ and Q) and (b) the differential capacity curve of the discharge curve (the relationship between DC, dQ/dV and V)[15]"

Fig. 7

Under the conditions of ambient temperature T=-15 ℃, initial SOC=50%, and charging current I=2 C, charge the battery to a different SOC end state (a) changes in voltage, current and temperature during relaxation Graph; (b) the relationship between differential voltage dV/dt and t; (c) the relationship between differential time dt/dV and V[16]"

Fig. 8

For different charging rates (a) the relationship between the voltage U and t; (b) the relationship between the differential voltage dV/dt and t after standing for 4 hours[17]"

Fig. 9

Lithium plating detection results and the ΔOCV curves of the discharging process (a) Detection results of Exp#1-1—Exp#1-4; (b) Detection results of Exp#2-1—Exp#2-4; (c) The ΔOCV curves of Exp#1-1—Exp#1-4; (d) The ΔOCV curves of Exp#2-1—Exp#2-4[29]"

Fig. 10

Under ambient temperature T=-15 ℃, initial SOC=50% and charging current I=2 C, the battery is charged to a different SOC for an hour after the end state. A short impedance is performed every 10 minutes spectral test plus a 10 h measurement value, (a) R0, rel (the point where the imaginary part is 0) and (b) |Z|rel, 5 Hz (the real part of the impedance at a frequency of 5 Hz) two resistance values increase with the relaxation time(Different colors represent different changes in SOC) [16]"

Fig. 11

LT cell (a) discharge and dV/dQ curve of different cycle numbers; (b) Rct-N varies with the number of cycles; (c) digital photo of graphite anode after 30 cycles[31]"

Fig. 12

At 25 ℃ (a) Y1; (b) Y2, Y3 and -10 ℃ (c) Y1; (d) Y2, Y3, Y1 (EIS), Y2 and Y3 (representing the strength of NFRA of different orders)[20]"

Table 1

Comparison of different nondestructive lithium plating detection methods"