Fig. 1

Schematic diagram of electrochemical processes occurring in the composite lithium anode"

Fig. 2

The development history of quantitative physicochemical models[46, 61-62, 72-79]"

Fig. 3

Simulation of lithium ion flux distribution in electrodes and schematic diagram of the simulation structure[91] (a) Simulation of lithium ion flux distribution in planar electrodes; (b) Simulation of lithium ion flux distribution in nanochannel electrodes of 3.5 μm; (c) Simulation cell geometry for the case with nanochannel electrodes. Scale bars: 400 nm"

Fig. 4

Morphology study of Li metal deposited on the porous Cu with different pore sizes at deposition capacity of 0.3 mAh/cm2 [94] (a) radius is 5 μm; (b) radius is 7.5 μm; (c) radius is 10 μm"

Fig. 5

Simulation of lithium concentration distribution and phase change of Li x In alloy during lithiation at current density of 5 mA/cm2 [105]"

Fig. 6

(a) Depth distribution of lithium metal deposition; (b) Time evolution curve of deposition capacity in pores; (c) Activation overpotential required for constant current lithium deposition; (d) Proportion of lithium metal in pores and average activation overpotential under different strategies at 600 s[74]"

Fig. 7

Phase field simulations of the galvanostatic lithium plating and stripping processes[63](a)—(c) Lithium dendrite growth at 0, 240.0, and 480.0 s, respectively, with a platingcurrent density of 10 mA/cm2; (d)—(f) Dead lithium formation process at 0, 240.0, and 404.8 s, with a stripping current density of 10 mA/cm2"

Fig. 8

The interfacial evolution principle during Li stripping and the actual condition of morphology evolution[125] (a) the site energy evolution after void injection by DFT calculations; (b) The void evolution regulated by the current-stripping areal capacity and current density; (c) The schematic of micro-scopic evolution in different void accumulation circumstances"

Fig. 9

The pressure shaping effect on the Li dendrite growth in electrolytes of elastic moduli ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 GPa. The applied external pressure is fixed at 6.0 MPa [130] (a) the snapshots of dendritic morphology at a plating capacity of 0.40 mAh/cm2; (b) The current density evolution with the proceeding of electroplating; (c) The space utilization in different electrolytes; (d) The phase diagram based on the applied external pressure and the elastic modulus of electrolyte at a plating capacity of 0.4 mAh/cm2. The gray portion denotes that the external pressure fails to work"

Fig. 10

(a) The distribution of von Mises stress in the host filled with PAN polymer during Li plating; (b) Schematic illustration for the boundary displacement of PAN during Li plating and stripping; (c) Young’s modulus of PAN during the process of deformation[130]"