Research progress on detection and analysis of thermal runaway gas products from lithium-ion batteries

doi:10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2024.0537

Abstract

Abstract:

The thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries releases a significant amount of gas, drawing considerable attention from researchers. Detecting and analyzing these gas products is a crucial aspect of studying thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries. This review first introduces the reactions occurring at various stages of thermal runaway and identifies the sources of the main gas products. It then focuses on the current primary detection and analysis technologies for thermal runaway gas products from lithium-ion batteries, including gas sensors, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), gas chromatography (GC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), Raman spectroscopy, ion chromatography (IC), composite gas analyzers, and combinations of these technologies. The review summarizes the practical applications of each technology, evaluates their limitations, suggests problem-solving methods, and discusses the advantages, disadvantages, development, and application of these technologies. Furthermore, the current research status on the detection results of thermal runaway gas products is elaborated and analyzed from five aspects: gas generation mechanism, gas composition and production, combustion and explosion hazards, toxicity, and monitoring and warning, providing valuable insights for the safe use and development of lithium-ion batteries. Finally, based on an analysis of the advantages of detection technologies and research on gas products, gas sensors, and GC-MS combined with gas sensors are recommended as the most suitable gas analysis technologies, offering guidance for selecting appropriate detection methods. The future optimization, development directions, and prospects of gas product detection and analysis technologies are discussed, providing a reference for the advancement of related technologies.

Key words: lithium-ion battery, thermal runaway, gas products, detection and analysis technology, advantages and disadvantages

CLC Number:

TM 911

Shouping WEI, Jie SUN, Jigang LI, Tian ZHOU, Jing CHEN, Shengnan DANG, Na TANG, Fan ZHANG. Research progress on detection and analysis of thermal runaway gas products from lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(11): 4155-4176.

Figures/Tables 20

Fig.1

Fig.2

Fig.3

Fig.4

Fig.5

Fig.6

Fig.7

Fig.8

Fig.9

Fig.10

Fig.11

Fig.12

Fig.13

Fig.14

Fig 15

Fig.16

Fig.17

Table 1

Advantages and disadvantages of detection and analysis technologies for thermal runaway gas products"

技术	优点	缺点
气体传感器	响应速度快、灵敏度高，适合气体的实时在线监测和分析；选择性好、检测范围宽，适合特定高浓度气体产物的准确测量；成本低、操作简便，可灵活配备不同数量、不同类型传感器	易受环境因素影响，容易被外部因素干扰，稳定性和可靠性相对不高，不能用于低浓度气体的精确测量，多气体检测时需要配备多个传感器
FTIR	分辨率高、波数精度高、灵敏度高、扫描速度快、光谱范围宽，适合多种气体的实时在线分析	无法鉴别化学结构相似的物质，无红外特征基团吸收的物质不能检测，谱图比较复杂，对分析人员要求高，谱图易受环境因素影响出现波动和干扰，需要额外添加样品预处理设备，复杂样品的重叠峰多且不易分辨
GC	分离能力强、灵敏度高、选择性好、性能稳定、适用性广，适合复杂气体样品的检测分析	物质定性方面能力有限，定性需要标准物，不适用未知成分的检测，对复杂混合物的检测时间较长，不能实时分析
GC-MS	综合了GC和MS的优点，对复杂混合气体的分离和定性能力强，检测的物质种类最多且能同时进行检测，检测结果准确可靠；灵敏度高、检测限低，低含量锂电热失控气体产物也能准确检测；技术发展成熟，应用最广泛	不适合分子量小于40的气体产物的检测，分析周期相对较长，无法反映热失控瞬时状态的气体信息变化，在采样过程中会破坏和消耗气体样本，仪器价格贵
拉曼光谱	除单原子气体外的所有气体都能检测，检测方式非接触、无损伤，不干扰电池内部反应，可对气体进行瞬态原位测量	拉曼信号比较弱，检测限相对较高，技术还不够成熟，仪器价格昂贵
IC	具有一般液相色谱的所有优点，可同时准确测定多种离子	不能直接检测气体，应用范围小
复合气体分析仪	不但具备单个气体传感器的优点，还能进行多个气体的快速自动化实时检测	具有和气体传感器类似的缺点，比气体传感器的造价高，缺乏灵活性，需要防止气体信号之间的交叉干扰
技术组合	综合每种技术的优点，弥补不足，适合用于锂离子电池热失控气体产物的全面检测分析	与单一技术相比，操作流程上会相对繁琐，且经济成本会增加

Table 1

Fig.18

Table 2

Summary of research on thermal runaway gas products from lithium-ion batteries in literature"

研究内容	技术	选用技术及其检测的气体	文献
产气机理分析	GC	CO、CO₂、H₂、O₂、C _x H _y	[11]
	GC	CO、CO₂、H₂、CH₄、C₂H₄、C₂H₆	[43]
	FTIR	CO₂、POF₃、EC	[33]
	GC+FTIR	CO、CO₂、H₂、CH₄、C₂H₄、C₂H₆	[26]
	GC-MS	CO、CO₂、O₂、有机气体	[27]
		CO₂、C₃H₆O₂等多种有机物、电解液	[31]
		CO₂、POF₃、CH₃F、CH₃OLi、CH₃OCH₃、DMC等	[70]
	GC-MS+气体传感器	CO、CO₂、CH₄、C₂H₆、C₂H₄等共25种气体(大多为有机物)以及HF	[60]

气体成分和产气量	GC	CO、CO₂、H₂、N₂、CH₄、C₂H₆、C₃H₈、C₂H₄、C₃H₆	[57]
	GC	CO、CO₂、H₂、O₂、N₂、CH₄、C₂H₂、C₂H₄、C₂H₆、C₃H₆、C₃H₈、水蒸气	[58]
	GC+复合气体分析仪	CO、CO₂、H₂、总碳氢化合物、HF	[68]
	拉曼光谱+气体传感器	H₂、CO、CO₂、O₂	[22]
	GC-MS	CO、CO₂以及CH₄、C₂H₆、C₂H₄等有机物共25种	[60]
		CO、CO₂以及PF₃、C₂H₄、C₂H₆等有机物共25种	[20]
		CO、CO₂以及C₂H₄、C₂H₆、C₃H₆等有机物共31种	[45]
	GC-MS+FTIR	CO、CO₂、HF、POF₃、可燃气、电解液	[72]
	GC-MS+气体传感器	CO₂、H₂、多种有机物	[20]

燃爆危险性	GC	N₂、CO、CO₂、H₂、O₂、C₁～C₄烃类	[25]
	GC	CO、CO₂、H₂、总烃	[24]
	FTIR	CO、CO₂	[54]
	FTIR	电解液、CH₄、H₂、N₂、CO₂	[56]
	拉曼光谱	CO₂、CO、H₂、CH₄、C₂H₄、C₃H₆	[23]
	拉曼光谱	CO、CO₂、H₂、CH₄	[52]
	复合气体分析仪	CO、CO₂、O₂	[64]
	GC-MS	CO₂、不饱和烃和电解液等共20多种物质	[73]
		CO、CO₂、H₂以及CH₄等大量有机物	[74]
		CO、CO₂、CH₄、C₂H₄	[7]
	GC-MS+气体传感器	CO、CO₂以及多种有机物	[28]

毒害	气体传感器	CO、CO₂、O₂、SO₂、HF、HCN、CH₄	[52]
	FTIR	CO、NO、SO₂、HCl、HF	[54]
	FTIR	HF、POF₃、PF₅	[44]
	气体传感器+FTIR	CO、CO₂、HF、POF₃	[75]
	气体分析仪	CO、CO₂、H₂、O₂	[76]
	IC	含氟物质、含氯物质	[63]
	GC-MS+气体传感器+IC	CO、CO₂、PO _x 、HF和100多种有机气体	[69]

监测预警	气体传感器	CO₂	[40]
		CO、CO₂、H₂	[51]
		CO、CO₂、H₂、CH₄、C₂H₄、C₂H₆	[48]
		CO、CO₂、H₂、HCl、HF	[77]
		CO、H₂	[4]
		CO、H₂、VOC	[21]
		CO、H₂、VOCs等	[3]

Table 2

References 80

1	YANG M J, YE Y J, YANG A J, et al. Comparative study on aging and thermal runaway of commercial LiFePO₄/graphite battery undergoing slight overcharge cycling[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2022, 50: 104691. DOI: 10.1016/j.est.2022.104691.
2	刘静, 吕媛媛, 秦剑峰, 等. 锂离子电池热失控产气的研究进展[J]. 工业安全与环保, 2023, 49(12): 71-76. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-425X.2023.12.015.
	LIU J, LÜ Y Y, QIN J F, et al. Research progress of thermal runaway gas generation in lithium ion batteries[J]. Industrial Safety and Environmental Protection, 2023, 49(12): 71-76. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-425X.2023.12.015.
3	KONG D P, LV H P, PING P, et al. A review of early warning methods of thermal runaway of lithium ion batteries[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2023, 64: 107073. DOI: 10.1016/j.est. 2023. 107073.
4	李正力, 李肖辉, 王京, 等. 锂离子电池储能电站热失控预警与防护研究进展[J]. 高压电器, 2024, 60(1): 87-99. DOI: 10.13296/j.1001-1609.hva.2024.01.011.
	LI Z L, LI X H, WANG J, et al. Research progress on thermal runaway warning and protection of lithium-ion battery in energy storage power station[J]. High Voltage Apparatus, 2024, 60(1): 87-99. DOI: 10.13296/j.1001-1609.hva.2024.01.011.
5	曹志成, 管敏渊, 楼平, 等. 锂离子电池热失控早期特征及预警方法综述[J]. 电源技术, 2024, 48(5): 771-780. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1002-087X.2024.05.002.
	CAO Z C, GUAN M Y, LOU P, et al. Review on early thermal runaway characteristic signal and warning method of lithium ion battery[J]. Chinese Journal of Power Sources, 2024, 48(5): 771-780. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1002-087X.2024.05.002.
6	赵春朋. 镍钴锰酸锂电池热失控及燃爆危险性研究[D]. 合肥:中国科学技术大学, 2021.
	ZHAO C P. Study on the thermal runaway risk and deflagration of nickel cobalt lithium manganate batteries[D]. Hefei: University of Science and Technology of China, 2021.
7	袁帅,台枫,钱新明,等.磷酸铁锂电池热失控产物爆炸下限预测方法[J/OL].爆炸与冲击, [2024-6-23].http://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/51.1148.O3.20240603.1547.008.html.
8	ZHAO J C, LU S, FU Y Y, et al. Experimental study on thermal runaway behaviors of 18650 li-ion battery under enclosed and ventilated conditions[J]. Fire Safety Journal, 2021, 125: 103417. DOI: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2021.103417.
9	国家消防救援局. 2021年全国10起典型火灾爆炸事故[EB/OL]. [2022-01-10] . https://www.119.gov.cn/xw/mtbd/tpbd/2022/25996.shtml
	National Fire and Rescue Bureau. 10 typical fire and explosion accidents in China in 2021[EB/OL]. [2022-01-10]. https://www. 119.gov.cn/xw/mtbd/tpbd/2022/25996.shtml
10	国家消防救援局. 全国一季度火灾21.9万起,死亡625人![EB/OL]. [2022-04-04]. https://www.119.gov.cn/gk/sjtj/2022/28761.shtml.
	National Fire and Rescue Bureau. 219000 fires occurred nationwide in the first quarter, resulting in 625 deaths! [EB/OL]. [2022-04-04]. https://www.119.gov.cn/gk/sjtj/2022/28761.shtml.
11	何雨潇. 锂离子电池内短路引发热失控过程研究[D]. 北京: 北京有色金属研究总院, 2023. DOI: 10.26970/d.cnki.gbjyy.2023.000025.
	HE Y X. Study on thermal runaway process caused by internal short circuit in lithium ion battery[D]. Beijing: General Research Institute for Nonferrous Metals, 2023. DOI: 10.26970/d.cnki.gbjyy.2023.000025.
12	柯巍. 圆柱形锂离子电池热失控传递抑制机理与实验研究[D]. 北京: 中国矿业大学(北京), 2022. DOI: 10.27624/d.cnki.gzkbu. 2022. 000079.
13	庄春吉, 黄辉, 胡敏杰, 等. 热失控数据采集实验系统设计与实验研究[J]. 实验室科学, 2022, 25(2): 14-18.
	ZHUANG C J, HUANG H, HU M J, et al. Design and experimental study on thermal runaway data acquisition experiment system[J]. Laboratory Science, 2022, 25(2): 14-18.
14	孙强, 贾井运, 王海斌, 等. 常压及低压下锂电池热失控随数量变化特性[J]. 中国安全科学学报, 2022, 32(2): 145-151. DOI: 10.16265/j.cnki.issn1003-3033.2022.02.020.
	SUN Q, JIA J Y, WANG H B, et al. Research on thermal runaway characteristics of lithium-ion batteries along with cell number changes under standard and low atmospheric pressures[J]. China Safety Science Journal, 2022, 32(2): 145-151. DOI: 10. 16265/j.cnki.issn1003-3033.2022.02.020.
15	李明浩. 气压和温度变化对18650锂离子电池热失控规律及产物的影响[D]. 广汉: 中国民用航空飞行学院, 2022. DOI: 10.27722/d.cnki.gzgmh.2022.000229.
16	周彪, 王凯, 任常兴, 等. 锂离子电池热失控过程中的烟气生成规律研究[J]. 消防科学与技术, 2023, 42(7): 897-902. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1009-0029.2023.07.004.
	ZHOU B, WANG K, REN C X, et al. Study on the composition and formation mechanism of smoke during thermal runaway propagation of lithium-ion batteries[J]. Fire Science and Technology, 2023, 42(7): 897-902. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1009-0029.2023.07.004.
17	张青松, 刘添添, 郝朝龙, 等. 锂离子电池热失控气体快速检测及危险性分析方法[J]. 北京航空航天大学学报, 2023, 49(9): 2227-2233. DOI: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2021.0668.
	ZHANG Q S, LIU T T, HAO C L, et al. Rapid detection analysis method of thermal runaway gas composition and risk of lithium ion battery[J]. Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2023, 49(9): 2227-2233. DOI: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2021.0668.
18	邹晓龙. 不同环境压力和温度下锰酸锂电池热失控特性研究[D]. 广汉: 中国民用航空飞行学院, 2022. DOI: 10.27722/d.cnki.gzgmh. 2022.000218.
19	朱艳丽, 徐艺博, 王聪杰, 等. 不同荷电状态磷酸铁锂电池热失控温度与产气特性分析[J]. 安全与环境学报, 2024, 24(1): 143-151. DOI: 10.13637/j.issn.1009-6094.2023.0588.
	ZHU Y L, XU Y B, WANG C J, et al. Analysis of thermal runaway temperature and gas production characteristics of lithium iron phosphate batteries with different states of charge[J]. Journal of Safety and Environment, 2024, 24(1): 143-151. DOI: 10.13637/j.issn.1009-6094.2023.0588.
20	张青松, 牛江昊, 赵洋. 不同正极材料锂离子电池热失控产物研究[J]. 消防科学与技术, 2023, 42(5): 598-602. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1009-0029.2023.05.004.
	ZHANG Q S, NIU J H, ZHAO Y. Research on thermal runaway products of lithium-ion batteries with different cathode materials[J]. Fire Science and Technology, 2023, 42(5): 598-602. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1009-0029.2023.05.004.
21	石爽, 吕娜伟, 马敬轩, 等. 不同类型气体探测对磷酸铁锂电池储能舱过充安全预警有效性对比[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2022, 11(8): 2452-2462. DOI: 10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2022.0240.
	SHI S, LYU N W, MA J X, et al. Comparative study on the effectiveness of different types of gas detection on the overcharge safety early warning of a lithium iron phosphate battery energy storage compartment[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(8): 2452-2462. DOI: 10.19799/j.cnki. 2095-4239.2022.0240.
22	张青松, 曲奕润, 郝朝龙, 等. 三元锂离子电池热失控气体原位分析[J]. 高电压技术, 2022, 48(7): 2817-2825. DOI: 10.13336/j.1003-6520.hve.20211850.
	ZHANG Q S, QU Y R, HAO C L, et al. In-situ analysis of thermal runaway gas in ternary lithium-ion battery[J]. High Voltage Engineering, 2022, 48(7): 2817-2825. DOI: 10.13336/j.1003-6520.hve.20211850.
23	陈达, 郝朝龙, 刘添添, 等. 锂离子电池热失控气体拉曼光谱分析方法研究[J]. 中国激光, 2022, 49(23): 2311001. DOI: 10.3788/CJL202249.2311001.
	CHEN D, HAO C L, LIU T T, et al. Raman spectrum analysis method of thermal runaway gas from lithium-ion batteries[J]. Chinese Journal of Lasers, 2022, 49(23): 2311001. DOI: 10.3788/CJL202249.2311001.
24	赵逸明. 低气压下大尺寸三元锂电池燃爆危险性研究[D]. 广汉: 中国民用航空飞行学院, 2023. DOI: 10.27722/d.cnki.gzgmh. 2023. 000007.
25	马彪, 林春景, 刘磊, 等. 锂离子电池热失控产气特性及其可燃极限[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2022, 11(5): 1592-1600. DOI: 10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2021.0618.
	MA B, LIN C J, LIU L, et al. Venting characteristics and flammability limit of thermal runaway gas of lithium ion battery[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(5): 1592-1600. DOI: 10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2021.0618.
26	夏玉佳, 朱振东. 磷酸铁锂锂离子电池化成产气的机理[J]. 电池, 2020, 50(6): 534-537. DOI: 10.19535/j.1001-1579.2020.06.006.
	XIA Y J, ZHU Z D. Gas generation mechanism of lithium iron phosphate Li-ion battery during formation[J]. Battery Bimonthly, 2020, 50(6): 534-537. DOI: 10.19535/j.1001-1579.2020.06.006.
27	史晓岩, 马磊磊, 常增花, 等. 化成制度对富锂锰基/硅碳体系电池产气及电化学性能影响[J]. 材料工程, 2022, 50(5): 112-121. DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2021.000317.
	SHI X Y, MA L L, CHANG Z H, et al. Influence of formation process on gas generation and electrochemical performance of Li-rich/Si@C Li-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Materials Engineering, 2022, 50(5): 112-121. DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381. 2021. 000317.
28	ZHANG Q S, NIU J H, ZHAO Z H, et al. Research on the effect of thermal runaway gas components and explosion limits of lithium-ion batteries under different charge states[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2022, 45: 103759. DOI: 10.1016/j.est.2021.103759.
29	RICHARD M N, DAHN J R. Accelerating rate calorimetry study on the thermal stability of lithium intercalated graphite in electrolyte. I. experimental[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 1999, 146(6): 2068-2077. DOI: 10.1149/1.1391893.
30	YANG H, BANG H, AMINE K, et al. Investigations of the exothermic reactions of natural graphite anode for Li-ion batteries during thermal runaway[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2005, 152(1): A73. DOI: 10.1149/1.1836126.
31	GACHOT G, GRUGEON S, ESHETU G G, et al. Thermal behaviour of the lithiated-graphite/electrolyte interface through GC/MS analysis[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2012, 83: 402-409. DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.08.016.
32	DIAZ F, WANG Y, WEYHE R, et al. Gas generation measurement and evaluation during mechanical processing and thermal treatment of spent Li-ion batteries[J]. Waste Management, 2019, 84: 102-111. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2018.11.029.
33	YANG H, SHEN X D. Dynamic TGA-FTIR studies on the thermal stability of lithium/graphite with electrolyte in lithium-ion cell[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2007, 167(2): 515-519. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.02.029.
34	DOUGHTY D H, ROTH E P. A general discussion of Li ion battery safety[J]. Electrochemical Society Interface, 2012, 21(2): 37-44.DOI: 10.1149/2.f03122if.
35	MACNEIL D D, DAHN J R. Test of reaction kinetics using both differential scanning and accelerating rate calorimetries As applied to the reaction of LixCoO₂ in non-aqueous electrolyte[J]. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A, 2001, 105(18): 4430-4439. DOI: 10.1021/jp001187j.
36	JO M, NOH M, OH P, et al. A new high power LiNi_0.81Co_0.1Al_0.09O₂ cathode material for lithium-ion batteries[J]. Advanced Energy Materials, 2014, 4(13). DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201301583.
37	BANG H J, JOACHIN H, YANG H, et al. Contribution of the structural changes of LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Al_0.05O₂ cathodes on the exothermic reactions in Li-ion cells[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2006, 153(4): A731. DOI: 10.1149/1. 2171828.
38	GOLUBKOV A W, SCHEIKL S, PLANTEU R, et al. Thermal runaway of commercial 18650 Li-ion batteries with LFP and NCA cathodes–impact of state of charge and overcharge[J]. RSC Advances, 2015, 5(70): 57171-57186. DOI: 10.1039/C5RA05897J.
39	WANG H Y, TANG A D, HUANG K L. Oxygen evolution in overcharged LixNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ electrode and its thermal analysis kinetics[J]. Chinese Journal of Chemistry, 2011, 29(8): 1583-1588. DOI: 10.1002/cjoc.201180284.
40	杨梦洁, 杨爱军, 叶奕君, 等. 基于气体分析的锂离子电池热失控早期预警研究进展[J]. 电工技术学报, 2023, 38(17): 4507-4538. DOI: 10.19595/j.cnki.1000-6753.tces.220832.
	YANG M J, YANG A J, YE Y J, et al. Research progress on early warning of thermal runaway of Li-ion batteries based on gas analysis[J]. Transactions of China Electrotechnical Society, 2023, 38(17): 4507-4538. DOI: 10.19595/j.cnki.1000-6753.tces.220832.
41	RÖDER P, BABA N, FRIEDRICH K A, et al. Impact of delithiated Li₀FePO₄ on the decomposition of LiPF₆-based electrolyte studied by accelerating rate calorimetry[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2013, 236: 151-157. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour. 2013. 02.044.
42	KONG W H, LI H, HUANG X J, et al. Gas evolution behaviors for several cathode materials in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2005, 142(1/2): 285-291. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.10.008.
43	GOLUBKOV A W, FUCHS D, WAGNER J, et al. Thermal-runaway experiments on consumer Li-ion batteries with metal-oxide and olivin-type cathodes[J]. RSC Advances, 2014, 4: 3633-3642.
44	ANDERSSON P, BLOMQVIST P, LORÉN A. et al. Using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to determine toxic gases in fires with lithium-ion batteries [J]. Fire and Materials, 2016, DOI: 10.1002/fam.2359.
45	YANG H, ZHUANG G V, ROSS P N. Thermal stability of LiPF₆ salt and Li-ion battery electrolytes containing LiPF₆[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2006, 161(1): 573-579. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour. 2006.03.058.
46	PASQUIER A D, DISMA F, BOWMER T, et al. Differential scanning calorimetry study of the reactivity of carbon anodes in plastic Li-ion batteries[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 1998, 145(2): 472-477. DOI: 10.1149/1.1838287.
47	LIAO Z H, ZHANG S, ZHAO Y K, et al. Experimental evaluation of thermolysis-driven gas emissions from LiPF₆-carbonate electrolyte used in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Energy Chemistry, 2020, 49: 124-135. DOI: 10.1016/j.jechem. 2020. 01.030.
48	刘同宇, 李师, 付卫东, 等. 大容量磷酸铁锂动力电池热失控预警策略研究[J]. 中国安全科学学报, 2021, 31(11): 120-126. DOI: 10.16265/j.cnki.issn1003-3033.2021.11.017.
	LIU T Y, LI S, FU W D, et al. Study on early warning strategy of large LFP traction battery's thermal runaway[J]. China Safety Science Journal, 2021, 31(11): 120-126. DOI: 10.16265/j.cnki.issn1003-3033.2021.11.017.
49	CAI T, VALECHA P, TRAN V, et al. Detection of Li-ion battery failure and venting with Carbon Dioxide sensors[J]. eTransportation, 2021, 7: 100100. DOI: 10.1016/j.etran. 2020. 100100.
50	CAI T, STEFANOPOULOU A G, SIEGEL J B. Early detection for Li-ion batteries thermal runaway based on gas sensing[J]. ECS Transactions, 2019, 89(1): 85-97. DOI: 10.1149/08901.0085ecst.
51	JIN Y, ZHENG Z K, WEI D H, et al. Detection of micro-scale Li dendrite via H₂ gas capture for early safety warning[J]. Joule, 2020, 4(8): 1714-1729. DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2020.05.016.
52	张青松, 曲奕润. 循环老化三元锂离子电池热失控气体毒性研究[J]. 北京航空航天大学学报, 2024, 50(6): 1761-1769. DOI: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2022.0534.
	ZHANG Q S, QU Y R. Research on toxicity of gases of thermal runaway released from ternary lithium-ion batteries featuring cyclic aging process[J]. Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2024, 50(6): 1761-1769. DOI: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2022.0534.
53	FERNANDES Y, BRY A, DE PERSIS S. Identification and quantification of gases emitted during abuse tests by overcharge of a commercial Li-ion battery[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2018, 389: 106-119. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.03.034.
54	RIBIÈRE P, GRUGEON S, MORCRETTE M, et al. Investigation on the fire-induced hazards of Li-ion battery cells by fire calorimetry[J]. Energy & Environmental Science, 2012, 5(1): 5271-5280. DOI: 10.1039/C1EE02218K.
55	LARSSON F, ANDERSSON P, BLOMQVIST P, et al. Toxic fluoride gas emissions from lithium-ion battery fires[J]. Scientific Reports, 2017, 7(1): 10018. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-09784-z.
56	陈钦佩, 王学辉, 米文忠. 电动汽车锂离子电池系统热失控气体毒害及爆炸特性研究[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2023, 12(7): 2256-2262. DOI: 10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2023.0294.
	CHEN Q P, WANG X H, MI W Z. Experiential study on the toxic and explosive characteristics of thermal runaway gas generated in electric-vehicle lithium-ion battery systems[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2256-2262. DOI: 10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2023.0294.
57	KOCH S, FILL A, BIRKE K P. Comprehensive gas analysis on large scale automotive lithium-ion cells in thermal runaway[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2018, 398: 106-112. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.07.051.
58	KENNEDY R W, MARR K C, EZEKOYE O A. Gas release rates and properties from lithium cobalt oxide lithium ion battery arrays[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2021, 487: 229388. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.229388.
59	YUAN L M, DUBANIEWICZ T, ZLOCHOWER I, et al. Experimental study on thermal runaway and vented gases of lithium-ion cells[J]. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2020, 144: 186-192. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2020.07.028.
60	LIAO Z H, ZHANG S, LI K, et al. Hazard analysis of thermally abused lithium-ion batteries at different state of charges[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2020, 27: 101065. DOI: 10.1016/j.est.2019.101065.
61	郝朝龙. 基于拉曼光谱的锂离子电池热失控气体在线检测方法研究[D]. 天津: 中国民航大学, 2022. DOI: 10.27627/d.cnki.gzmhy. 2022.000208.
62	GERELT-OD B, KIM J, SHIN E, et al. In situ Raman investigation of resting thermal effects on gas emission in charged commercial 18650 lithium ion batteries[J]. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 2021, 96: 339-344. DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2021.01.039.
63	DIAZ F, WANG Y, WEYHE R, et al. Gas generation measurement and evaluation during mechanical processing and thermal treatment of spent Li-ion batteries[J]. Waste Management, 2019, 84: 102-111. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2018.11.029.
64	LIU P J, LI Y Q, MAO B B, et al. Experimental study on thermal runaway and fire behaviors of large format lithium iron phosphate battery[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2021, 192: 116949. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.116949.
65	MICHALAK B, SOMMER H, MANNES D, et al. Gas evolution in operating lithium-ion batteries studied in situ by neutron imaging[J]. Scientific Reports, 2015, 5: 15627. DOI: 10.1038/srep15627.
66	FINEGAN D P, SCHEEL M, ROBINSON J B, et al. In-operando high-speed tomography of lithium-ion batteries during thermal runaway[J]. Nature Communications, 2015, 6: 6924. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7924.
67	NIE K H, WANG X L, QIU J L, et al. Increasing poly(ethylene oxide) stability to 4.5 V by surface coating of the cathode[J]. ACS Energy Letters, 2020, 5(3): 826-832. DOI: 10.1021/acsenergylett.9b02739.
68	WILLSTRAND O, PUSHP M, ANDERSSON P, et al. Impact of different Li-ion cell test conditions on thermal runaway characteristics and gas release measurements[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2023, 68: 107785. DOI: 10.1016/j.est. 2023. 107785.
69	SUN J, LI J G, ZHOU T, et al. Toxicity, a serious concern of thermal runaway from commercial Li-ion battery[J]. Nano Energy, 2016, 27: 313-319. DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.06.031.
70	GACHOT G, RIBIÈRE P, MATHIRON D, et al. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry as a suitable tool for the Li-ion battery electrolyte degradation mechanisms study[J]. Analytical Chemistry, 2011, 83(2): 478-485. DOI: 10.1021/ac101948u.
71	KUMAI K, MIYASHIRO H, KOBAYASHI Y, et al. Gas generation mechanism due to electrolyte decomposition in commercial lithium-ion cell[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 1999, 81: 715-719. DOI: 10.1016/S0378-7753(98)00234-1.
72	STURK D, ROSELL L, BLOMQVIST P, et al. Analysis of Li-ion battery gases vented in an inert atmosphere thermal test chamber[J]. Batteries, 2019, 5(3): 61. DOI: 10.3390/batteries5030061.
73	张青松, 包防卫, 牛江昊. 环境压力对锂电池热失控产气及爆炸风险的影响[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2023, 12(7): 2263-2270. DOI: 10. 19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2023.0192.
	ZHANG Q S, BAO F W, NIU J H. Risk analysis method of thermal runaway gas explosion in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2263-2270. DOI: 10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2023.0192.
74	CHEN S C, WANG Z R, WANG J H, et al. Lower explosion limit of the vented gases from Li-ion batteries thermal runaway in high temperature condition[J]. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2020, 63: 103992. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp. 2019. 103992.
75	LARSSON F, ANDERSSON P, BLOMQVIST P, et al. Characteristics of lithium-ion batteries during fire tests[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2014, 271: 414-420. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour. 2014.08.027.
76	MAO B B, LIU C Q, YANG K, et al. Thermal runaway and fire behaviors of a 300 Ah lithium ion battery with LiFePO₄ as cathode[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2021, 139: 110717. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.110717.
77	王铭民, 孙磊, 郭鹏宇, 等. 基于气体在线监测的磷酸铁锂储能电池模组过充热失控特性[J]. 高电压技术, 2021, 47(1): 279-286. DOI: 10.13336/j.1003-6520.hve.20200227004.
	WANG M M, SUN L, GUO P Y, et al. Overcharge and thermal runaway characteristics of lithium iron phosphate energy storage battery modules based on gas online monitoring[J]. High Voltage Engineering, 2021, 47(1): 279-286. DOI: 10.13336/j.1003-6520.hve.20200227004.
78	王志荣, 杨赟, 佟轩, 等. 基于气体监测的锂离子电池组热失控自动报警器及其监测方法: CN108008083A[P]. 2018-05-08.
79	全国汽车标准化技术委员会电动车辆分技术委员会. 关于征求«电动汽车动力蓄电池峰值功率试验方法»等两项汽车行业标准意见的函[EB/OL]. [2024-06-05]. http://www.catarc.org.cn:8088/zxd/portal/detail/zqyj/496.
	National Technical Committee of Auto Standardization. Letter on soliciting opinions on two automotive industry standards, including the peak power test method for electric vehicle power batteries[EB/OL]. [2024-06-05]. http://www.catarc.org.cn:8088/zxd/portal/detail/zqyj/496.
80	CHEN M R, ZHANG M, YANG Z Y, et al. AI-driven wearable mask-inspired self-healing sensor array for detection and identification of volatile organic compounds[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2024, 34(3): 2309732. DOI: 10.1002/adfm. 202309732.

[1]	Zhonglin SUN, Jiabo LI, Di TIAN, Zhixuan WANG, Xiaojing XING. Useful life prediction for lithium-ion batteries based on COA-LSTM and VMD [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 3254-3265.
[2]	Jizhong LU, Simin PENG, Xiaoyu LI. State-of-health estimation of lithium-ion batteries based on multifeature analysis and LSTM-XGBoost model [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 2972-2982.
[3]	Xuefeng HU, Xianlei CHANG, Xiaoxiao LIU, Wei XU, Wenbin ZHANG. SOC estimation of lithium-ion batteries under multiple temperatures conditions based on MIARUKF algorithm [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 2983-2994.
[4]	Siyuan SHEN, Yakun LIU, Donghuang LUO, Yujun LI, Wei HAO. Transient overvoltage protection design and circuit development for energy storage lithium-ion battery modules [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 3277-3286.
[5]	Yuan CHEN, Siyuan ZHANG, Yujing CAI, Xiaohe HUANG, Yanzhong LIU. State-of-health estimation of lithium batteries based on polynomial feature extension of the CNN-transformer model [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 2995-3005.
[6]	Ruihe XING, Suting WENG, Yejing LI, Jiayi ZHANG, Hao ZHANG, Xuefeng WANG. AI-assisted battery material characterization and data analysis [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 2839-2863.
[7]	Hongsheng GUAN, Cheng QIAN, Bo SUN, Yi REN. Predicting capacity degradation trajectory for lithium-ion batteries under limited data conditions [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 3084-3093.
[8]	Xue KE, Huawei HONG, Peng ZHENG, Zhicheng LI, Peixiao FAN, Jun YANG, Yuzheng GUO, Chunguang KUAI. Estimating lithium-ion battery health using automatic feature extraction and channel attention mechanisms for multi-timescale modeling [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 3059-3071.
[9]	Chengwen TIAN, Bingxiang SUN, Xinze ZHAO, Zhicheng FU, Shichang MA, Bo ZHAO, Xubo ZHANG. Accelerated life prediction of lithium-ion batteries using data-driven approaches [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 3103-3111.
[10]	Qingbo LI, Maohui ZHANG, Ying LUO, Taolin LYU, Jingying XIE. Lithium-ion battery state of charge estimation based on equivalent circuit model [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 3072-3083.
[11]	Bingxiang SUN, Xin YANG, Xingzhen ZHOU, Shichang MA, Zhihao WANG, Weige ZHANG. Comparative parametric study of metaheuristics based on impedance modeling for lithium-ion batteries [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(9): 2952-2962.
[12]	Yufeng HUANG, Huanchao LIANG, Lei XU. Kalman filter optimize Transformer method for state of health prediction on lithium-ion battery [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(8): 2791-2802.
[13]	Zheng CHEN, Bo YANG, Zhigang ZHAO, Jiangwei SHEN, Renxin XIAO, Xuelei XIA. State of charge estimation considering lithium battery temperature and aging [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(8): 2813-2822.
[14]	Lijun XU, Lihong XU, Fangyuxuan SONG. System fault monitoring and diagnostic analysis of electrochemical energy storage power stations [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(8): 2788-2790.
[15]	Guohe CHEN, Peizhao LYU, Menghan LI, Zhonghao RAO. Research progress on thermal runaway propagation characteristics of lithium-ion batteries and its inhibiting strategies [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2024, 13(7): 2470-2482.