Fig.1

Physical image of test battery"

Table 1

Basic parameters of test batteries"

Fig.2

Lithium-ion battery thermal runaway test chamber"

Fig.3

Supporting device for flame triggering lithium-ion battery thermal runaway; The red dot in the left image indicates the position of flame burning; In the right image, a, b, and c represent the positions of the thermocouples measuring the temperature at the front, middle, and end of the battery's upper surface, respectively"

Fig.4

Photographs of thermal runaway behavior and battery debris of NCM batteries with different SOC"

Fig.5

Diagram of mass loss during thermal runaway of NCM batteries with different SOC"

Fig.6

Thermal runaway temperature and gas concentration of NCM batteries with different SOC"

Table 2

Experiment data of thermal runaway of different SOC NCM triggered by flame"

Fig.7

GC analysis after thermal runaway triggered by flame in NCM batteries with different SOC"

Table 3

Statistics of toxic species in thermal runaway products of NCM batteries with different SOC"

Table 4

Details of thermal runaway products from batteries with different SOC"

Fig.8

SEM characterization images of cathode materials (a) (f) before thermal runaway at 30% SOC; (b) (g) after thermal runaway at 0% SOC; (c) (h) after thermal runaway at 30% SOC; (d) (i) after thermal runaway at 50% SOC; (e) (j) after thermal runaway at 100% SOC"

Fig.9

EDS analysis of cathode materials before and after thermal runaway of batteries with different SOC: (a) fresh battery at 30% SOC; (b) after thermal runaway of 0% SOC battery; (c) after thermal runaway of 30% SOC battery; (d) after thermal runaway of 50% SOC battery; (e) after thermal runaway of 100% SOC battery; (f) surface element content"

Fig.10

XRD characterization of cathode materials before and after thermal runaway of batteries with different SOC"

Fig.11

XPS characterization of C1s spectra for cathode materials before and after thermal runaway of batteries with different SOC"

Fig.12

SEM characterization images of anode materials; (a) (f) before thermal runaway at 30% SOC; (b)(g) after thermal runaway at 0% SOC; (c) (h) after thermal runaway at 30% SOC; (d)(i) after thermal runaway at 50% SOC; (e)(j) after thermal runaway at 100% SOC"

Fig.13

EDS analysis of anode materials before and after thermal runaway of batteries with different SOC: (a) fresh battery at 30% SOC; (b) after thermal runaway of 0% SOC battery; (c) after thermal runaway of 30% SOC battery; (d) after thermal runaway of 50% SOC battery; (e) after thermal runaway of 100% SOC battery; (f) surface element content"

Fig.14

XRD characterization of anode materials before and after thermal runaway of batteries with different SOC"

Fig.15

XPS characterization of C1s spectra for anode materials before and after thermal runaway of batteries with different SOC"

Fig.16

SEM characterization images of membranes; (a) (f) before thermal runaway at 30% SOC; (b) (g) after thermal runaway at 0% SOC; (c) (h) after thermal runaway at 30% SOC; (d) (i) after thermal runaway at 50% SOC; (e) (j) after thermal runaway at 100% SOC"

Fig.17

XRD characterization of membranes before and after thermal runaway of batteries with different SOC"