Key materials and technology research progress of lithium-sulfur batteries

doi:10.12028/j.issn.2095-4239.2016.0091

Abstract

Abstract: Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries, with low cost and environmental friendly active materials, have received great attention due to their superior theoretical specific energy of 2600 W•h/kg and 2800 W•h/L. However, many technical problems in both basic materials development and manufacturing technology exploration still exist and severely hinder the industrialization process of Li-S batteries. From the perspective of industrial applications, this review summarizes the current problems and solutions with respect to safety, cycle-lifetime and energy density of Li-S batteries. Lithium metal heterogeneous deposition is proposed to be the main reason of batteries volume expansion. Based on investigation of cost and application requirement, industry-research cooperation and continuously technology innovation are necessary to achieve practical application.

Key words: lithium-sulfur batteries, lithium metal anode, carbon/sulfur composite cathode

CHEN Yuqing1,2, YANG Xiaofei1,2, YU Ying1,2, LI Xianfeng1,3, ZHANG Hongzhang1,3, ZHANG Huamin1,3. Key materials and technology research progress of lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2017, 6(2): 169-189.

References

[1] IDOTA Y, KUBOTA T, MATSUFUJI A, et al. Tin-based amorphous oxide: A high-capacity lithium-ion-storage material[J]. Science, 1997, 276(5317): 1395-1397.

[2] POIZOT P, LARUELLE S, GRUGEON S, et al. Nano-sized transition-metal oxides as negative-electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries[J]. Nature, 2000, 407(6803): 496-499.

[3] TARASCON J M, ARMAND M. Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries[J]. Nature, 2001, 414(6861): 359-367.

[4] ARMAND M, TARASCON J M. Building better batteries[J]. Nature, 2008, 451(7179): 652-657.

[5] BRUCE P G, SCROSATI B, TARASCON J M. Nanomaterials for rechargeable lithium batteries[J]. Angewandte Chemie, 2008, 47(16): 2930-2946.

[6] GOODENOUGH J B, KIM Y. Challenges for rechargeable Li batteries[J]. Chemistry of Materials , 2010, 22(3): 587-603.

[7] ROSENMAN A, MARKEVICH E, SALITRA G, et al. Review on Li-sulfur battery systems: An integral perspective[J]. Advanced Energy Material, 2015, 5(16): doi: 10.1002/aenm.201500212.

[8] 丁玲. 电动汽车用动力电池发展综述[J]. 电源技术, 2015, 39(7): 1567-1569.

DING Ling. Development review of electric vehicle power battery[J]. Chinese Journal of Power Sources, 2015, 39(7): 1567-1569.

[9] 宋永华，阳岳希，胡泽春. 电动汽车电池的现状及发展趋势[J]. 电网技术, 2011, 35(4): 1-7.

SONG Yonghua, YANG Yuexi, HU Zechun. Present status and development trend of batteries for electric vehicles[J]. Power System Technology, 2011, 35(4): 1-7.

[10] 肖成伟，汪继强. 电动汽车动力电池产业的发展[J]. 科技导报, 2016, 34(6): 74-83.

XIAO Chengwei, WANG Jiqiang. The development of electric vehicle power battery industry[J]. Science & Technology Review, 2016, 34(6): 74-83.

[11] JI X, LEE K T, NAZAR L F. A highly ordered nanostructured carbon-sulphur cathode for lithium-sulphur batteries[J]. Nature Materials, 2009, 8(6): 500-506.

[12] CAO R, XU W, LV D, et al. Anodes for rechargeable lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Advanced Energy Material, 2015, 5(16): doi: 10.1002/aenm.20140227.

[13] SON Y, LEE J S, SON Y, et al. Recent advances in lithium sulfide cathode materials and their use in lithium sulfur batteries[J]. Advanced Energy Material, 2015, 5(16): doi: 10.1002/aenm. 201500110.

[14] ZHANG S, UENO K, DOKKO K, et al. Recent advances in electrolytes for lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Advanced Energy Material, 2015, 5(16): doi: 10.1002/aenm.201500117.

[15] XU W, WANG J, DING F, et al. Lithium metal anodes for rechargeable batteries[J]. Energy & Environmental Science, 2014, 7(2): 513-537.

[16] PELED E. Lithium-sulfur battery: Evaluation of dioxolane-based electrolytes[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 1989, 136(6): 1621-1625.

[17] LANGENHUIZEN N P W. The effect of mass transport on Li deposition and dissolution[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 1998, 145(9): 3094-3099.

[18] GAN H, TAKEUCHI E S. Lithium electrodes with and without CO₂ treatment: Electrochemical behavior and effect on high rate lithium battery performance[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 1996, 62(1): 45-50.

[19] AURBACH D, POLLAK E, ELAZARI R, et al. On the surface chemical aspects of very high energy density, rechargeable Li-sulfur batteries[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2009, 156(8): A694-A702.

[20] XIONG S, KAI X, HONG X,et al. Effect of LiBOB as additive on electrochemical properties of lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Ionics, 2011, 18(3): 249-254.

[21] LIN Z, LIU Z, FU W, et al. Phosphorous pentasulfide as a novel additive for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2013, 23(8): 1064-1069.

[22] ISHIKAWA M, YOSHITAKE S, MORITA M, et al. In situ scanning vibrating electrode technique for the characterization of interface between lithium electrode and electrolytes containing additives[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 1994, 141(12): L159-L161.

[23] DING F, XU W, GRAFF G L, et al. Dendrite-free lithium deposition via self-healing electrostatic shield mechanism[J]. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2013, 135(11): 4450-4456.

[24] QIAN J, XU W, BHATTACHARYA P, et al. Dendrite-free Li deposition using trace-amounts of water as an electrolyte additive[J]. Nano Energy, 2015, 15: 135-144.

[25] AURBACH D, GOFER Y, LANGZAM J. The correlation between surface-chemistry, surface-morphology, and cycling efficiency of lithium electrodes in a few polar aprotic systems[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 1989, 136(11): 3198-3205.

[26] QIAN J, HENDERSON W A, XU W, et al. High rate and stable cycling of lithium metal anode[J]. Nature Communications, 2015, 6: 6362-6370.

[27] ANGELL C A, LIU C, SANCHEZ E. Rubbery solid electrolytes with dominant cationic transport and high ambient conductivity[J]. Nature, 1993, 362(6416): 137-139.

[28] SUO L, HU Y S, LI H, et al. A new class of solvent-in-salt electrolyte for high-energy rechargeable metallic lithium batteries[J]. Nature Communications, 2013, 4(2):66-78.

[29] LIU M, ZHOU D, HE Y B, et al. Novel gel polymer electrolyte for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Nano Energy, 2016, 22: 278-289.

[30] ZHANG S S, TRAN D T. How a gel polymer electrolyte affects performance of lithium/sulfur batteries[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2013, 114: 296-302.

[31] ISA K B , OSMAN Z, AROF A K, et al. Lithium ion conduction and ion-polymer interaction in PVdF-HFP based gel polymer electrolytes[J]. Solid State Ionics, 2014, 268(12): 288-293.

[32] HACKETT E, MANIAS E, GIANNELIS E P. Computer simulation studies of PEO/layer silicate nanocomposites[J]. Chem. Mater., 2000, 12(12): 2161-2167.

[33] MACGLASHAN G S, ANDREEV Y G, BRUCE P G. Structure of the polymer electrolyte poly(ethylene oxide)₆: LiAsF₆[J]. Nature, 1999, 398(6730): 792-794.

[34] QUARTARONE E, MUSTARELLI P, MAGISTRIS A. PEO-based composite polymer electrolytes[J]. Solid State Ionics, 1998, 110(1/2): 1-14.

[35] TSAO C H, KUO P L. Poly(dimethylsiloxane) hybrid gel polymer electrolytes of a porous structure for lithium ion battery[J]. Journal of Membrane Science, 2015, 489: 36-42.

[36] DENG F, WANG X, HE D, et al. Microporous polymer electrolyte based on PVDF/PEO star polymer blends for lithium ion batteries[J]. Journal of Membrane Science, 2015, 491: 82-89.

[37] COSTA C M, NUNES-PEREIRA J, RODRIGUES L C, et al. Novel poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene)/poly(ethylene oxide) blends for battery separators in lithium-ion applications[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2013, 88(2): 473-476.

[38] CHOUDHURY S, MANGAL R, AGRAWAL A, et al. A highly reversible room-temperature lithium metal battery based on crosslinked hairy nanoparticles[J]. Nature Communications, 2015, 6: 10101-10109.

[39] 胡宗倩. 锂硫电池用改性固态电解质隔膜研究[D]. 北京: 国防科学技术大学, 2011.

HU Zongqian. Research on modified solid electrolyte membrane for lithium-sulfur battery[D]. Beijing: National University of Defense Technology, 2011.

[40] TREVEY J E, JUNG Y S, LEE S H. High lithium ion conducting Li₂S-GeS₂-P₂S₅ glass-ceramic solid electrolyte with sulfur additive for all solid-state lithium secondary batteries[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2011, 56(11): 4243-4247.

[41] HAYASHI A, OHTSUBO R, OHTOMO T, et al. All-solid-state rechargeable lithium batteries with Li₂S as a positive electrode material[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2008, 183(1): 422-426.

[42] KANNO R, MURAYAMA M. Lithium ionic conductor thio-LISICON: The Li₂S-GeS₂-P₂S₅ system[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2001, 148(7): A742 -A746.

[43] ZHANG J, YUE L, HU P, et al. Taichi-inspired rigid-flexible coupling cellulose-supported solid polymer electrolyte for high-performance lithium batteries[J]. Scientific Reports, 2014, 4: 6272-6278.

[44] ZHAO Y, HUANG Z, CHEN S, et al. A promising PEO/LAGP hybrid electrolyte prepared by a simple method for all-solid-state lithium batteries[J]. Solid State Ionics, 2016, 295: 65-71.

[45] WANG Q S, WEN Z, JIN J, et al. A gel-ceramic multi-layer electrolyte for long-life lithium sulfur batteries[J]. Chem. Commun., 2016, 52(8): 1637-1640.

[46] IBA H, YADA C. Invited presentation: Innovative batteries for sustainable mobility[C]//Meeting Abstracts. The Electrochemical Society, 2014 (1): 120.

[47] WANG J L, YANG J, XIE J Y, et al. Sulfur-carbon nano-composite as cathode for rechargeable lithium battery based on gel electrolyte[J]. Electrochemistry Communications, 2002, 4(6): 499-502.

[48] 王维坤, 余仲宝, 赵春荣, 等. 锂-硫二次电池研究的进展与思路[J]. 第十四次全国电化学会议论文汇编, 江苏: 扬州, 2007.

WANG Weikun, YU Zhongbao, ZHAO Chunrong, et al. Research progress and ideas of lithium-sulfur secondary battery[J]. The 14th national electrochemical conference proceedings, Jiangsu: Yangzhou, 2007.

[49] DAN P, MENGERITSKI E, GERONOV Y, et al. Performances and safety behaviour of rechargeable AA-size Li/Li_xMnO₂cell[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 1995, 54(1): 143-145.

[50] WEISSMAN I, ZABAN A, AURBACH D. Safely and performance of Tadiran TLR-7103 rechargeable balteries[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 1996, 143(7): 2110-2116.

[51] AURBACH D, ZINIGRAD E, TELLER H, et al. Factors which limit the cycle life of rechargeable lithium (metal) batteries[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2000, 147(4): 1274-1279.

[52] MENGERITSKY E, DAN P, WEISSMAN I, et al. High energy rechargeable Li-S cells for EV application, status, remaining problems and solutions[J]. ECS Transactions, 2010, 25(35): 23-34.

[53] AURBACH D. Review of selected electrode-solution interactions which determine the performance of Li and Li ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2000, 89(2): 206-218.

[54] ZABAN A, ZINIGRAD E, AURBACH D. Impedance spectroscopy of Li electrodes .4. A general simple model of the Li-solution interphase in polar aprotic systems[J]. Journal of Physical Chemistry, 1996, 100(8): 3089-3101.

[55] LI N W, YIN Y X, YANG C P, et al. An artificial solid electrolyte interphase layer for stable lithium metal anodes[J]. Advanced Materials, 2015, 28(9): 1853-1858.

[56] GERONOV Y, SCHWAGER F, MULLER R H. Electrochemical studies of the film formation on lithium in propylene carbonate solutions under open-circuit conditions[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 1982, 129(7): 1422-1429.

[57] ELY Y E, AURBACH D. Identification of surface-films formed on active metals and nonactive metal-electrodes at low potentials in methyl formate solutions[J]. Langmuir, 1992, 8(7): 1845-1850.

[58] MA G, WEN Z, WU M, et al. A lithium anode protection guided highly-stable lithium-sulfur battery[J]. Chemical Communications, 2014, 50(91): 14209-14212.

[59] DING F, LIU Y, HU X. 1,3-dioxolane pretreatment to improve the interfacial characteristics of a lithium anode[J]. Rare Metals, 2006, 25(4): 297-302.

[60] ZHU B, JIN Y, HU X, et al. Poly(dimethylsiloxane) thin film as a stable interfacial layer for high-performance lithium-metal battery anodes[J]. Advanced Materials, 2016: doi: 10.1002/adma.201603755.

[61] ZHENG G, LEE S W, LIANG Z, et al. Interconnected hollow carbon nanospheres for stable lithium metal anodes[J]. Nature Nanotechnology, 2014, 9(8): 618-623.

[62] CHENG X B, HOU T Z, ZHANG R, et al. Dendrite-free lithium deposition induced by uniformly distributed lithium ions for efficient lithium metal batteries[J]. Advanced Materials, 2016, 28(15): 2888-2895.

[63] WU M, WEN Z, JIN J, et al. Trimthylsilyl chloride-modified Li anode for enhanced performance of Li-S cells[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2016, 8(25): 16386-16395.

[64] WU M, JIN J, WEN Z. Influence of a surface modified Li anode on the electrochemical performance of Li-S batteries[J]. RSC Adv., 2016, 6(46): 40270-40276.

[65] 张密林，颜永得. 锂及锂合金[M]. 北京: 科学出版社, 2015.

ZHANG Milin, YAN Yongde. Lithium and lithium alloy[M]. Beijing: Science Press, 2015.

[66] DUAN B, WANG W, ZHAO H, et al. Li-B alloy as anode material for lithium/sulfur battery[J]. ECS Electrochemistry Letters, 2013, 2(6): A47-A51.

[67] KWON C W, CHEON S E, SONG J M, et al. Characteristics of a lithium-polymer battery based on a lithium powder anode[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2001, 93(1): 145-150.

[68] KIM J S, YOON W Y. Improvement in lithium cycling efficiency by using lithium powder anode[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2004, 50(2): 531-534.

[69] KIM J S, YOON W Y, YI K Y, et al. The dissolution and deposition behavior in lithium powder electrode[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2007, 165(2): 620-624.

[70] ZHENG S, CHEN Y, XU Y, et al. In situ formed lithium sulfide/microporous carbon cathodes for lithium-ion batteries[J]. ACS Nano, 2013, 7(12): 10995-11003.

[71] HASSOUN J, SCROSATI B. A high-performance polymer tin sulfur lithium ion battery[J]. Angewandte Chemie, 2010, 49(13): 2371-2374.

[72] WU H, CHAN G, CHOI J W, et al. Stable cycling of double-walled silicon nanotube battery anodes through solid-electrolyte interphase control[J]. Nature Nanotechnology, 2012, 7(5): 310-315.

[73] 黄学杰. 电动汽车动力电池技术研究进展[J]. 科技导报, 2016, 34(6): 28-31.

HUANG X J. An overview of xEVs battery technologies[J]. Science & Technology Review, 2016, 34(6): 28-31.

[74] AKRIDGE J R, MIKHAYLIK Y V, WHITE N. Li/S fundamental chemistry and application to high-performance rechargeable batteries[J]. Solid State Ionics, 2004, 175(1/2/3/4): 243-245.

[75] 艾新平, 曹余良, 杨汉西. 锂-硫二次电池界面反应的特殊性与对策分析[J]. 电化学, 2012, 18(3): 224-228.

AI Xinping, CAO Yuliang, YANG Hanxi. Particularity and countermeasure analysis of the interface reaction in lithium-sulfur battery[J]. Journal of Electrochemistry, 2012, 18(3): 224-228.

[76] MA Y, ZHANG H, WU B, et al. Lithium sulfur primary battery with super high energy density: Based on the cauliflower-like structured C/S cathode[J]. Scientific Reports, 2015, 5: 14949-14958.

[77] WANG M, ZHANG H, WANG Q, Qu C, Li X, Zhang H. Steam-etched spherical carbon/sulfur composite with highsulfur capacity and long cycle life for Li/S battery application[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2015, 7(6): 3590-3599.

[78] 李泓, 郑杰允. 发展下一代高能量密度动力锂电池——变革性纳米产业制造技术聚焦长续航动力锂电池项目研究进展[J]. 中国科学院院刊, 2016, (9): 1120-1127.

LI Hong, ZHENG Jieyun. Development of next generation of high energy density lithium batteries for electric vehicle[J]. Bulletin of Chinese academy of sciences, 2016, 31(9): 1120-1127.

[79] DIAO Y, XIE K, XIONG S, et al. Shuttle phenomenon—The irreversible oxidation mechanism of sulfur active material in Li-S battery[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2013, 235(4): 181-186.

[80] 李亚娟, 詹晖, 黄可龙, 等. PEO 基锂硫二次聚合物电池[J]. 化学学报, 2010, 68(18): 1850-1854.

LI Yajuan, ZHAN Hui, HUANG Kelong, et al. All solid state lithium sulfur rechargeable battery with PEO-based polymer electrolytes[J]. Acta Chimica Sinica, 2010, 68(18): 1850-1854.

[81] 苗力孝. 网络结构碳/硫复合材料的制备及其在锂硫电池中的电化学性能研究[D]. 北京: 北京理工大学, 2014.

MIAO Lixiao. Sulfur/carbon composite cathode with net-work for lithium sulfur battery research[D]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology, 2014.

[82] DUAN B, WANG W, WANG A, et al. Carbyne polysulfide as a novel cathode material for lithium/sulfur batteries[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2013, 1(42): 13261-13267.

[83] SUN F, WANG J, CHEN H, et al. Bottom-up catalytic approach towards nitrogen-enriched mesoporous carbons/sulfur composites for superior Li-S cathodes[J]. Scientific Reports, 2013, 3(10): 2823-2830

[84] HE M, YUAN L X, ZHANG W X, et al. Enhanced cyclability for sulfur cathode achieved by a water-soluble binder[J]. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2011, 115(31): 15703-15709.

[85] ELAZARI R, SALITRA G, GARSUCH A, et al. Sulfur-impregnated activated carbon fiber cloth as a binder-free cathode for rechargeable Li-S batteries[J]. Advanced Materials, 2011, 23(47): 5641-5644.

[86] SUO L, HU Y S, LI H, et al. A new class of solvent-in-salt electrolyte for high-energy rechargeable metallic lithium batteries[J]. Nature Communications, 2013, 4(2): 66-78.

[87] BAI S, LIU X, ZHU K, et al. Metal-organic framework-based separator for lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Natrure Energy, 2016, 1(7): 16094-16099.

[88] XIONG S, XIE K, DIAO Y, et al. Properties of surface film on lithium anode with LiNO₃ as lithium salt in electrolyte solution for lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Electrochim Acta, 2012, 83(12): 78-86.

[89] XIN S, GU L, ZHAO N H, et al. Smaller sulfur molecules promise better lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2012, 134(45): 18510-18513.

[90] LIANG C, DUDNEY N J, HOWE J Y. Hierarchically structured sulfur/carbon nanocomposite material for high-energy lithium battery[J]. Chemistry of Materials, 2009, 21(19): 4724-4730.

[91] YANG X, YAN N, ZHOU W, et al. Sulfur embedded in one-dimension French fries-like hierarchical porous carbon derived from metal organic framework for high performance lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2015, 3(29): 15314-15323.

[92] PANG Q, TANG J, HUANG H, et al. A nitrogen and sulfur dual-doped carbon derived from polyrhodanine@cellulose for advanced lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Advanced Materials, 2015, 27(39): 6021-6028.

[93] TANG C, ZHANG Q, ZHAO M Q, et al. Nitrogen-doped aligned carbon nanotube/graphene sandwiches: facile catalytic growth on bifunctional natural catalysts and their applications as scaffolds for high-rate lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Advanced Materials, 2014, 26(35): 6100-6105.

[94] WU F, LI J, TIAN Y, et al. 3D coral-like nitrogen-sulfur co-doped carbon-sulfur composite for high performance lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Scientific Reports, 2015, 5: 13340-13349.

[95] LIU J, LI W, DUAN L, et al. A graphene-like oxygenated carbon nitride material for improved cycle-life lithium/sulfur batteries[J]. Nano Letters, 2015, 15(8): 5137-5142.

[96] CHUNG W J, GRIEBEL J J, KIM E T, et al. The use of elemental sulfur as an alternative feedstock for polymeric materials[J]. Nature Chemistry, 2013, 5(6): 518-524.

[97] KIM H, LEE J, AHN H, et al. Synthesis of three-dimensionally interconnected sulfur-rich polymers for cathode materials of high-rate lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Nature Communications, 2015, 6: 7278-7287.

[98] WEI S Z, LI W, CHA J J, et al. Sulphur-TiO₂ yolk-shell nanoarchitecture with internal void space for long-cycle lithium-sulphur batteries[J]. Nature Communications, 2013, 4: 1331-1336.

[99] ZHOU W, YU Y, CHEN H, et al. Yolk-shell structure of polyaniline-coated sulfur for lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2013, 135(44): 16736-16743.

[100] ZHANG S S. Binder based on polyelectrolyte for high capacity density lithium/sulfur battery[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2012, 159(8): A1226-A1229.

[101] YANG X, CHEN Y, WANG M, et al. Phase inversion: A universal method to create high-performance porous electrodes for nanoparticle-based energy storage devices[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2016, 26(46): 8427-8434.

[102] AURBACH D, GRANOT E. The study of electrolyte solutions based on solvents from the ''glyme'' family (linear polyethers) for secondary Li battery systems[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 1997, 42(4): 697-718.

[103] RYU H S, AHN H J, KIM K W, et al. Discharge behavior of lithium/sulfur cell with TEGDME based electrolyte at low temperature[J]. Journal of the Power Sources, 2006, 163(1): 201-206.

[104] RYU H S, AHN H J, KIM K W, et al. Self-discharge characteristics of lithium/sulfur batteries using TEGDME liquid electrolyte[J]. Electrochim Acta, 2006, 52(4): 1563-1566.

[105] LI G, LI Z, ZHANG B, et al. Developments of electrolyte systems for lithium-sulfur batteries: A review[J]. Frontiers in Energy Research, 2015, 3: 5-16.

[106] JO G, JEON H, PARK M J. Synthesis of polymer electrolytes based on poly(ethylene oxide) and an anion-stabilizing hard polymer for enhancing conductivity and cation transport[J]. ACS Macro Letters, 2015, 4(2): 225-230.

[107] WANG Q, JIN J, WU X, et al. A shuttle effect free lithium sulfur battery based on a hybrid electrolyte[J]. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2014, 16(39): 21225-21229.

[108] SCHEERS J, FANTINI S, JOHANSSON P. A review of electrolytes for lithium-sulphur batteries[J]. Journal of the Power Sources, 2014, 255(255): 204-218.

[109] ZHANG S S. New insight into liquid electrolyte of rechargeable lithium/sulfur battery[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2013, 97(5): 226-230.

[110] ZHANG S S. Liquid electrolyte lithium/sulfur battery: Fundamental chemistry, problems, and solutions[J]. Journal of the Power Sources, 2013, 231(2): 153-162.

[111] CHEN R, LIU Z, LI L, et al. Electrolyte materials for high energy density lithium-sulfur secondary battery[J]. Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version), 2013, 58(32): 3301 -3311.

[112] ZHAO Y, ZHANG Y, GOSSELINK D, et al. Polymer electrolytes for lithium/sulfur batteries[J]. Membranes, 2012, 2(4): 553-564.

[113] TERAN A A, BALSARA N P. Effect of lithium polysulfides on the morphology of block copolymer electrolytes[J]. Macromolecules, 2011, 44(23): 9267-9275.

[114] GU S, QIAN R, JIN J, et al. Suppressing the dissolution of polysulfides with cosolvent fluorinated diether towards high-performance lithium sulfur batteries[J]. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2016, 18(42): 29293-29299.

[115] BALACH J, JAUMANN T, KLOSE M, et al. Functional mesoporous carbon-coated separator for long-life, high-energy lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2015, 25(33): 5285-5291.

[116] HUANG J Q, ZHANG Q, PENG H J, et al. Ionic shield for polysulfides towards highly-stable lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Energy & Environmental Science, 2014, 7(1): 347 -353.

[117] JIN Z, XIE K, HONG X. Synthesis and electrochemical properties of a perfluorinated ionomer with lithium sulfonyl dicyanomethide functional groups[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2013, 1(2): 342-347.

[118] JIN Z, XIE K, HONG X. Electrochemical performance of lithium/sulfur batteries using perfluorinated ionomer electrolyte with lithium sulfonyl dicyanomethide functional groups as functional separator[J]. RSC Advances, 2013, 3(23): 8889-8898.

[119] YAMADA T, ITO S, OMODA R, et al. All solid-state lithium-sulfur battery using a glass-type P₂S₅-Li₂S electrolyte: Benefits on anode kinetics[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2015, 162(4): A646-A651.

[120] UNEMOTO A, YASAKU S, NOGAMI G, et al. Development of bulk-type all-solid-state lithium-sulfur battery using LiBH₄ electrolyte[J]. Applied Physics Letters, 2014, 105(8): doi: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4893666.

[121] NAGAO M, IMADE Y, NARISAWA H, et al. All-solid-state Li-sulfur batteries with mesoporous electrode and thio-LISICON solid electrolyte[J]. Journal of the Power Sources, 2013, 222(2): 237-242.

[122] MARMORSTEIN D. Solid state lithium/sulfur batteries for electric vehicles: Electrochemical and spectroelectrochemical investigations[D]. San Francisco: University of California, Berkeley, 2002.

[123] ZHANG Y, ZHAO Y, GOSSELINK D, et al. Synthesis of poly(ethylene-oxide)/nanoclay solid polymer electrolyte for all solid state lithium/sulfur battery[J]. Ionics, 2015, 21(2): 381-385.

[124] KOBAYASHI T, IMADE Y, SHISHIHARA D, et al. All solid-state battery with sulfur electrode and thio-LISICON electrolyte[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2008, 182(2): 621-625.

[125] KAMAYA N, HOMMA K, YAMAKAWA Y, et al. A lithium superionic conductor[J]. Nature Materials, 2011, 10(9): 682-686.

[126] YU X, BI Z, ZHAO F, et al. Hybrid lithium-sulfur batteries with a solid electrolyte membrane and lithium polysulfide catholyte[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2015, 7(30): 16625-16631.

[127] YAN N, YANG X, ZHOU W, et al. Fabrication of a nano-Li⁺-channel interlayer for high performance Li-S battery application[J]. RSC Advances, 2015, 5(33): 26273-26280.

[128] SEH Z W, LI W, CHA J J, et al. Sulphur-TiO₂ yolk-shell nanoarchitecture with internal void space for long-cycle lithium-sulphur batteries[J]. Nature Communications, 2013, 4: 1331-1337.

[129] ZHOU W, YU Y, CHEN H, et al. Yolk-shell structure of polyaniline-coated sulfur for lithium-sulfur batteries[J]. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2013, 135(44): 16736-16743.

[130] 吴娇杨, 刘品, 胡勇胜, 等. 锂离子电池和金属锂离子电池的能量密度计算[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2016, 5(4): 443-453.

WU Jiaoyang, LIU Pin, HU Yongsheng, Li Hong. Calculation on energy densities of lithium ion batteries and metallic lithium ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2016, 5(4): 443-453.

[131] Sionpower. Technology overview[EB/OL]. http://www.sionpower.com/ technology-licerion.php, 2016.