Table 1

List of in-situ interface characterization techniques introduced in this review"

Figure 1

Schematic diagram of in-situ AFM setup"

Figure 2

Schematic diagram of EQCM setup"

Figure 3

Schematic diagram of in-situ Raman setup"

Figure 4

Schematic diagram of in-situ FTIR setup"

Figure 5

Classification of interface evolution systems in secondary batteries"

Figure 5

(a-c) Mass changes measured by EQCM during SEI formation on the graphite anode (a), morphological evolution observed by in-situ AFM (b), and gas generation data measured by DEMS (c); (d) Schematic illustration of SEI formation on the graphite anode."

Figure 6

(a) In-situ three-dimensional laser confocal microscopy measurement of sodium dendrite growth; (b-e) Morphological evolution observed by in-situ AFM during SEI formation on the sodium metal anode (b), mass increase and dissolution behavior measured by EQCM (c), composition evolution detected by in-situ Raman spectroscopy (d), and gas generation measured by DEMS (e); (f) Schematic illustration of SEI formation and failure mechanism on the sodium metal anode."

Figure 8

(a-b) In-situ AFM results during zinc anode deposition; (b) In-situ three-dimensional laser confocal microscopy measurement of zinc dendrite growth."

Figure 9

(a) Schematic diagram of the in-situ on-chip testing platform; (b-d) during discharge and charge of lithium-oxygen battery on platinum substrate, the in-situ AFM observation of morphology evolution (b), in-situ Raman (c), and in-situ FTIR (d) results."

Figure 10

(a-c) In-situ AFM (a), EQCM (b), and in-situ laser particle size analyzer (c) measurements of a sodium-oxygen battery with HeptVBr2 additive in the electrolyte[44]."

Figure 11

(a-c) In-situ AFM observations of the morphological changes of Na2CO3 particles during decomposition; (d-f) In-situ Raman spectroscopy (d), DEMS (e), and EQCM (f) measuring results during the Na2CO3 decomposition process[46]"

Figure 12

(a) EQCM measurement of mass changes during the discharge process of a Li-S battery; (b) UV-visible spectroscopy showing the adsorption behavior of the binder on lithium polysulfides; (c) Schematic diagram illustrating the binder's mechanism in suppressing the dissolution of lithium polysulfides[48]"