Table 1

List of in-situ interface characterization techniques introduced in this review"

Fig. 1

Schematic diagram of in-situ AFM setup"

Fig. 2

Schematic diagram of EQCM setup"

Fig. 3

Schematic diagram of in-situ Raman setup"

Fig. 4

Schematic diagram of in-situ FTIR setup"

Fig. 5

Classification of interface evolution systems in secondary batteries"

Fig. 6

(a) Mass changes measured by EQCM during SEI formation on the graphite anode; (b) Morphological evolution observed by in-situ AFM; (c) Gas generation data measured by DEMS; (d) Schematic illustration of SEI formation on the graphite anode"

Fig. 7

(a) In-situ three-dimensional laser confocal microscopy measurement of sodium dendrite growth; (b) Morphological evolution observed by in-situ AFM during SEI formation on the sodium metal anode; (c) Mass increase and dissolution behavior measured by EQCM; (d) Composition evolution detected by in-situ Raman spectroscopy; (e) Gas generation measured by DEMS; (f) Schematic illustration of SEI formation and failure mechanism on the sodium metal anode"

Fig. 8

(a) (b) In-situ AFM results during zinc anode deposition; (c) In-situ three-dimensional laser confocal microscopy measurement of zinc dendrite growth[19]"

Fig. 9

(a) Schematic diagram of the in-situ on-chip testing platform; (b)—(d) during discharge and charge of lithium-oxygen battery on platinum substrate, the in-situ AFM observation of morphology evolution in-situ Raman and in-situ FTIR results[42]"

Fig. 10

(a)—(c) In-situ AFM EQCM and in-situ laser particle size analyzer measurements of a sodium-oxygen battery with HeptVBr2 additive[44]"

Fig. 11

(a)—(c) In-situ AFM observations of the morphological changes of Na2CO3 particles during decomposition; (d)—(f) In-situ Raman spectroscopy DEMS and EQCM measuring results during the Na2CO3 decomposition process[46]"

Fig. 12

(a) EQCM measurement of mass changes during the discharge process of a Li-S battery; (b) UV-visible spectroscopy showing the adsorption behavior of the binder on lithium polysulfides; (c) Schematic diagram illustrating the binder's mechanism in suppressing the dissolution of lithium polysulfides[48]"