Research progress of gas-sensing technologies for the monitoring and early warning of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries

doi:10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2023.0386

Abstract

Abstract:

With the advantages of high energy and power densities, Li-ion batteries (LiBs) are widely used to power an increasingly diverse range of applications, including portable electrochemical energy-storage devices, electric vehicles, and large energy-storage power plants. In addition, they are considered the most competitive power sources for future green smart grids. With the increasing demand for energy sources and storage devices, LiBs with high energy density are continuously being pursued. However, high energy densities could result in high safety risks. The conventional organic liquid electrolyte components and olefin-based separators used in existing LiBs are flammable. In addition, nonuniform distribution of components, inhomogeneous interfacial contacts, and electrical, thermal, or mechanical abuses in the battery operating process can cause internal short circuit, thus releasing large amounts of Joules heat, resulting in a rapid temperature rise and thermal runaway propagation, thus triggering toxic gas release, smoke, fire, combustion or even explosion. To improve the safety and cycling lifetime of LiBs, the mechanism and process of thermal runaway must be understood. In addition, detection and warning technologies must be developed for the early-stages warning of the battery thermal runaway. Compared with technologies on monitoring the terminal voltage, current, and surface temperature, the gas-sensing approach can effectively detect the thermal runaway at a very early stage. During the thermal runaway process, LiBs produce characteristic gases, such as O₂, H₂, carbon oxides (CO, CO₂), hydrocarbons (C₂H₄, CH₄, etc.), and fluorine gases (HF, POF₃, etc.), through chemical or electrochemical reactions. As such, the thermal runaway behavior of LiBs could be monitored and early warnings can be issued by detecting the composition and concentration of the released characteristic gases. This review comprehensively presents the research progress and prospects of gas-sensing techniques for the thermal runaway of LiBs. First, the paper summarizes the main causes and processes of the thermal runaway of LiBs. Next, the characteristic gas generation and corresponding detecting techniques are described. Then, this paper elaborates on the research progress on the gas detecting and sensing technologies for the early warning of the thermal runaway. Furthermore, gas-sensing technologies for the early warning in the thermal runaway in LiBs are proposed. This review provides guidance for the gas sensing technologies to achieve an early warning system of the thermal runaway in LiBs. Moreover, the findings of this study show the development of LiBs with high safety and high energy density.

Key words: lithium-ion batteries, thermal runaway, early warning, gas releasing

CLC Number:

TM 911

Zejie TAN, Xiaoyan ZHOU, Zhenheng XU, Xiaopeng FAN, Bing TIAN, Zhiming WANG, Qiutong LI, Jialong FU, Zhiyong LI, Xin GUO. Research progress of gas-sensing technologies for the monitoring and early warning of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(11): 3456-3470.

Figures/Tables 5

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Table 1

Gas releasing during thermal runaway of various LIBs"

电池体系	容量/Ah	SOC	气体总量/mL	气体种类和浓度	参考文献
正极：—；负极：—；电解质：—	—	100%	—	N₂ (33.13%)，CO₂ (29.86%)，H₂ (15.25%)，CO (7.26%)，CH₄ (5.71%)，C₂H₄ (4.33%)	[62]
正极：LCO/NCM；负极：石墨；电解质： LiPF₆ DMC/ EMC/EC	2.6	—	5936±985.6	CO₂ (24.9%)，CO (27.6%)，H₂ (30%)，CH₄ (8.6%)， C₂H₄ (7.7%)，C₂H₆ (1.2%)	[63]
正极：NCM；负极：石墨；电解质： LiPF₆ DMC/ EMC/EC/PC	1.5	—	3337.6±537.6	CO₂ (41.2%)，CO (13%)，H₂ (30.8%)，CH₄ (6.8%)， C₂H₄ (8.2%)
正极：LFP；负极：石墨；电解质： LiPF₆ DMC/EMC/EC/PC	1.1	—	1120±89.6	CO₂ (53%)，CO (4.8%)，H₂ (30.9%)，CH₄ (4.1%)， C₂H₄ (6.8%)，C₂H₆ (0.3%)
正极：LFP；负极：—；电解质： LiPF₆ DMC/EMC/EC/PC	2.5	120%	645.8 ± 37.1	CO₂ (47%)，H₂ (23%)，C₂H₄ (10%)，CO (4.9%)， C₂H₅F (4.6%)	[39]
正极：LCO；负极：Li _x C₆；电解质： LiPF₆ PC/EMC/DEC/DMC)	1	—	10.5	CO₂ (75.6%)，CH₄ (12%)，C₂H₆ (2.6%)，C₃H₈ (2.7%)， O₂ (1.3), N₂ (5.3%)	[28]
正极：LFP；电解质：—；负极：石墨	3.8	100%	3790	H₂ (24.24%)，CO (4.5%)，CO₂ (25.39%)，CH₄ (5.9%)， C₂H₂ (0.08%)，C₂H₄ (3.26)，C₂H₆ (1.29%)	[64]
正极：LTO；电解质：—；负极：石墨	1.3		8980	H₂ (8.41%)，CO (5.3%)，CO₂ (37.6%)，CH₄ (1.23%)， C₂H₂ (0.0008%)，C₂H₄ (1.38%)，C₂H₆ (0.4%)
正极：NMC；电解质：—；负极：石墨	3.2		11720	H₂ (12.39%)，CO (30.30%)，CO₂ (13.22%)，CH₄ (10.50%), C₂H₂ (0.0026%)，C₂H₄ (0.1%)，C₂H₆ (0.16%)
正极：LCO；负极：石墨化碳纤维；电解质：1 mol/L LiPF₆ EC/EMC	0.65	90%	22	CO₂ (—)，H₂ (—)，CO (—)，CH₄ (—)，C₂H₄ (—)，C₂H₆ (—)	[65]
正极：NCM；负极：石墨；电解质： LiPF₆ EC/DEC/EMC	32	170%	—	CO₂ (32.2%)，CO (45.1%)，C₂H₄ (4.2%)，C₂H₆ (0.51%)	[66]
		180%	—	CO₂ (39.9%)，CO (43.3%)，C₂H₄ (7.9%)，C₂H₆ (0.8%)， CH₄ (0.4%)
		190%	—	CO₂ (58.4%)，CO (31.7%)，C₂H₄ (3.97%)，C₂H₆ (0.81%)，CH₄ (0.53%)
正极：LCO；负极：石墨；电解质： LiPF₆ DMC/EC	2.3	75%	—	N₂ (68%)，O₂ (14.31%)，H₂ (5.92%)，CO₂ (4.86%)， CO (3.58%)，C _x H _y (3.44%)	[67]
正极：LCO；负极：石墨；电解质： LiPF₆ DMC/EC	2.3	100%	—	N₂ (54.54%)，O₂ (11.26%)，H₂ (8.81%)，CO₂ (5.3%)， CO (11.95%)，C _x H _y (8.14%)
正极：NCM；负极：石墨；电解质： LiPF₆ DMC/EC	2.6	75%	—	N₂ (59.75)，O₂ (14.57%)，H₂ (5.66%)，CO₂ (5.21%)， CO (4.21%)，C _x H _y (9.31%)
正极：NCM；负极：石墨；电解质： LiPF₆ DMC/EC	2.6	100%	—	N₂ (39.89)，O₂ (4.71%)，H₂ (11.56%)，CO₂ (7.25%)， CO (22.02%)，C _x H _y (14.57%)
正极：LFP；负极：石墨；电解质： LiPF₆ EC/EMC/PC；	～2.75	100%	—	CO₂ (2000 ppm)，CO (1000 ppm)，H₂ (1000 ppm) (1 ppm=10^-6)	[68]

Table 1

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

References 96

1	LEBROUHI B E, KHATTARI Y, LAMRANI B, et al. Key challenges for a large-scale development of battery electric vehicles: A comprehensive review[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2021, 44: 103273.
2	YANG Z J, HUANG H B, LIN F. Sustainable electric vehicle batteries for a sustainable world: Perspectives on battery cathodes, environment, supply chain, manufacturing, life cycle, and policy[J]. Advanced Energy Materials, 2022, 12(26): 2200383.
3	QIU Y S, JIANG F M. A review on passive and active strategies of enhancing the safety of lithium-ion batteries[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2022, 184: 122288.
4	ZHANG Q S, NIU J H, ZHAO Z H, et al. Research on the effect of thermal runaway gas components and explosion limits of lithium-ion batteries under different charge states[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2022, 45: 103759.
5	CHOMBO P V, LAOONUAL Y. A review of safety strategies of a Li-ion battery[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2020, 478: 228649.
6	SNYDER M, THEIS A. Understanding and managing hazards of lithium-ion battery systems[J]. Process Safety Progress, 2022, 41(3): 440-448.
7	UN C, AYDıN K. Thermal runaway and fire suppression applications for different types of lithium ion batteries[J]. Vehicles, 2021, 3(3): 480-497.
8	LAI X, YAO J, JIN C Y, et al. A review of lithium-ion battery failure hazards: Test standards, accident analysis, and safety suggestions[J]. Batteries, 2022, 8: 248.
9	陈钦佩, 王学辉, 米文忠. 电动汽车锂离子电池系统热失控气体毒害及爆炸特性研究[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2023, 12(7): 2256-2262.
	CHEN Q P, WANG X H, MI W Z. Experiential study on the toxic and explosive characteristics of thermal runaway gas generated in electric-vehicle lithium-ion battery systems[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2256-2262.
10	周洋捷, 王震坡, 洪吉超, 等. 新能源汽车动力电池"过充电-热失控"安全防控技术研究综述[J]. 机械工程学报, 2022, 58(10): 112-135.
	ZHOU Y J, WANG Z P, HONG J C, et al. Review of overcharge-to-thermal runaway and the control strategy for lithium-ion traction batteries in electric vehicles[J]. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2022, 58(10): 112-135.
11	杨坤, 雷洪钧, 肖博文, 等. 锂离子电池热失控机理分析与解决策略[J]. 江汉大学学报(自然科学版), 2020, 48(5): 14-20.
	YANG K, LEI H J, XIAO B W, et al. Mechanism analysis and solution strategy of thermal runaway of lithium ion battery[J]. Journal of Jianghan University (Natural Science Edition), 2020, 48(5): 14-20.
12	MCKERRACHER R D, GUZMAN-GUEMEZ J, WILLS R G A, et al. Advances in prevention of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Advanced Energy and Sustainability Research, 2021, 2(5): 2000059.
13	FU J L, LI Z, ZHOU X Y, et al. Ion transport in composite polymer electrolytes[J]. Materials Advances, 2022, 3(9): 3809-3819.
14	ZHOU X Y, LI X G, LI Z, et al. Hybrid electrolytes with an ultrahigh Li-ion transference number for lithium-metal batteries with fast and stable charge/discharge capability[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2021, 9(34): 18239-18246.
15	LI W F, ZHANG Y J, GAO Z H, et al. Experimental and theoretical analysis of the eruption processes of abused prismatic Ni-rich automotive batteries based on multi-parameters[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2022, 52: 105012.
16	APPLEBERRY M C, KOWALSKI J A, AFRICK S A, et al. Avoiding thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries using ultrasound detection of early failure mechanisms[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2022, 535: 231423.
17	丁奕, 杨艳, 陈锴, 等. 锂离子电池智能消防及其研究方法[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2022, 11(6): 1822-1833.
	DING Y, YANG Y, CHEN K, et al. Intelligent fire protection of lithium-ion battery and its research method[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(6): 1822-1833.
18	王春力, 贡丽妙, 亢平, 等. 锂离子电池储能电站早期预警系统研究[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2018, 7(6): 1152-1158.
	WANG C L, GONG L M, KANG P, et al. Research on early warning system of lithium ion battery energy storage power station[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2018, 7(6): 1152-1158.
19	李晋, 王青松, 孔得朋, 等. 锂离子电池储能安全评价研究进展[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2023, 12(7): 2282-2301.
	LI J, WANG Q S, KONG D P, et al. Research progress on the safety assessment of lithium-ion battery energy storage[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2282-2301.
20	WANG K, OUYANG D X, QIAN X M, et al. Early warning method and fire extinguishing technology of lithium-ion battery thermal runaway: A review[J]. Energies, 2023, 16(7): 2960.
21	惠东, 高飞, 杨凯, 等. 锂离子电池安全防护技术专利分析[J]. 高电压技术, 2018, 44(1): 106-118.
	HUI D, GAO F, YANG K, et al. Patent analysis of safety protection technology for lithium ion batteries[J]. High Voltage Engineering, 2018, 44(1): 106-118.
22	刘文婷. 从三方面着手提升锂电池安全性[N]. 中国电子报, 2023-02-28.
23	黄颖峰, 孙玉波, 赵锦, 等. 利用傅里叶变换红外光谱进行储能电柜热失控诊断的系统: CN115792674A[P]. 2023-03-14.
	HUANG Y F, SUN Y B, ZHAO J, et al. System for diagnosing thermal runaway of energy storage electric cabinet by using Fourier transform infrared spectrum: CN115792674A[P]. 2023-03-14.
24	刘启帆, 康斌, 顾文亮, 等. 监测方法、系统、设备和存储介质: CN116298954A[P]. 2023-06-23.
	LIU Q F, KANG B, GU W L, et al. Monitoring method, system and equipment and storage medium: CN116298954A[P]. 2023-06-23.
25	李奎杰, 楼平, 管敏渊, 等. 锂离子电池热失控多维信号演化及耦合机制研究综述[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2023, 12(3): 899-912.
	LI K J, LOU P, GUAN M Y, et al. A review of multi-dimensional signal evolution and coupling mechanism of lithium-ion battery thermal runaway[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(3): 899-912.
26	FENG X N, REN D S, HE X M, et al. Mitigating thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries[J]. Joule, 2020, 4(4): 743-770.
27	WANG S J, RAFIZ K, LIU J L, et al. Effects of lithium dendrites on thermal runaway and gassing of LiFePO₄ batteries[J]. Sustainable Energy & Fuels, 2020, 4(5): 2342-2351.
28	KUMAI K, MIYASHIRO H, KOBAYASHI Y, et al. Gas generation mechanism due to electrolyte decomposition in commercial lithium-ion cell[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 1999, 81/82: 715-719.
29	SIM R, LANGDON J, MANTHIRAM A. Design of an online electrochemical mass spectrometry system to study gas evolution from cells with lean and volatile electrolytes[J]. Small Methods, 2023, 7(6): 2201438.
30	KOCH S, BIRKE K, KUHN R. Fast thermal runaway detection for lithium-ion cells in large scale traction batteries[J]. Batteries, 2018, 4(2): 16.
31	石爽, 吕娜伟, 马敬轩, 等. 不同类型气体探测对磷酸铁锂电池储能舱过充安全预警有效性对比[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2022, 11(8): 2452-2462.
	SHI S, LYU N W, MA J X, et al. Comparative study on the effectiveness of different types of gas detection on the overcharge safety early warning of a lithium iron phosphate battery energy storage compartment[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(8): 2452-2462.
32	NIE K H, WANG X L, QIU J L, et al. Increasing poly(ethylene oxide) stability to 4.5 V by surface coating of the cathode[J]. ACS Energy Letters, 2020, 5(3): 826-832.
33	CAI T, STEFANOPOULOU A G, SIEGEL J B. Early detection for Li-ion batteries thermal runaway based on gas sensing[J]. ECS Transactions, 2019, 89(1): 85-97.
34	LIAO Z H, ZHANG J G, GAN Z Y, et al. Thermal runaway warning of lithium-ion batteries based on photoacoustic spectroscopy gas sensing technology[J]. International Journal of Energy Research, 2022, 46(15): 21694-21702.
35	张永明, 单志林, 张启兴, 等. 基于阵列传感器的锂电池火灾特征气体探测方法及系统: CN116046989A[P]. 2023-05-02.
	ZHANG Y M, SHAN Z L, ZHANG Q X, et al. Lithium battery fire characteristic gas detection method and system based on array sensor: CN116046989A[P]. 2023-05-02.
36	SPOTNITZ R, FRANKLIN J. Abuse behavior of high-power, lithium-ion cells[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2003, 113(1): 81-100.
37	RUIZ V, PFRANG A, KRISTON A, et al. A review of international abuse testing standards and regulations for lithium ion batteries in electric and hybrid electric vehicles[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2018, 81: 1427-1452.
38	WEN J W, YU Y, CHEN C H. A review on lithium-ion batteries safety issues: Existing problems and possible solutions[J]. Materials Express, 2012, 2(3): 197-212.
39	FERNANDES Y, BRY A, DE PERSIS S. Identification and quantification of gases emitted during abuse tests by overcharge of a commercial Li-ion battery[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2018, 389: 106-119.
40	ZHU Y Y, XIE J, PEI A, et al. Fast lithium growth and short circuit induced by localized-temperature hotspots in lithium batteries[J]. Nature Communications, 2019, 10: 2067.
41	李悦, 李天奇, 秦建华, 等. 18650磷酸铁锂电池不同放电倍率下产热机理研究[J]. 电源技术, 2021, 45(8): 1001-1004.
	LI Y, LI T Q, QIN J H, et al. Study on the heat generation mechanism of 18650 LiFePO₄ battery under different discharge rates[J]. Chinese Journal of Power Sources, 2021, 45(8): 1001-1004.
42	LAMB J, ORENDORFF C J. Evaluation of mechanical abuse techniques in lithium ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2014, 247: 189-196.
43	LI H G, ZHOU D, ZHANG M H, et al. Multi-field interpretation of internal short circuit and thermal runaway behavior for lithium-ion batteries under mechanical abuse[J]. Energy, 2023, 263: 126027.
44	WANG H, LARA-CURZIO E, RULE E T, et al. Mechanical abuse simulation and thermal runaway risks of large-format Li-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2017, 342: 913-920.
45	WU Q, YANG L, LI N, et al. In-situ thermography revealing the evolution of internal short circuit of lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2022, 540: 231602.
46	徐成善, 鲁博瑞, 张梦启, 等. 储能锂离子电池预制舱热失控烟气流动研究[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2022, 11(8): 2418-2431.
	XU C S, LU B R, ZHANG M Q, et al. Study on thermal runaway flue gas flow in prefabricated compartment of energy storage lithium ion battery[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(8): 2418-2431.
47	张斌, 吴楠, 赵希强, 等. 基于红外热成像技术的动力电池组热失控监测系统[J]. 电池工业, 2019, 23(4): 171-175, 185.
	ZHANG B, WU N, ZHAO X Q, et al. Thermal out-of-control monitoring system for power batteries based on infrared thermal imaging technology[J]. Chinese Battery Industry, 2019, 23(4): 171-175, 185.
48	苏同伦. 基于声信号的锂电池储能舱安全预警及故障定位方法研究[D]. 郑州: 郑州大学, 2021.
	SU T L. Battery energy storage cabin based on acoustic signal research on safety warning and fault location of lithium[D]. Zhengzhou: Zhengzhou University, 2021.
49	WANG Q S, MAO B B, STOLIAROV S I, et al. A review of lithium ion battery failure mechanisms and fire prevention strategies[J]. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2019, 73: 95-131.
50	ZHAO L W, WATANABE I, DOI T, et al. TG-MS analysis of solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on graphite negative-electrode in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2006, 161(2): 1275-1280.
51	YANG H, BANG H, AMINE K, et al. Investigations of the exothermic reactions of natural graphite anode for Li-ion batteries during thermal runaway[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2005, 152(1): A73.
52	ORENDORFF C J. The role of separators in lithium-ion cell safety[J]. Interface Magazine, 2012, 21(2): 61-65.
53	WANG Q S, SUN J H, CHEN X F, et al. Effects of solvents and salt on the thermal stability of charged LiCoO₂[J]. Materials Research Bulletin, 2009, 44(3): 543-548.
54	ZOU K Y, LU S X, CHEN X, et al. Thermal and gas characteristics of large-format LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ pouch power cell during thermal runaway[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2021, 39: 102609.
55	FENG X N, FANG M, HE X M, et al. Thermal runaway features of large format prismatic lithium ion battery using extended volume accelerating rate calorimetry[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2014, 255: 294-301.
56	ALLEN J. Review of polymers in the prevention of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Reports, 2020, 6: 217-224.
57	WANG Z, YANG H, LI Y, et al. Thermal runaway and fire behaviors of large-scale lithium ion batteries with different heating methods[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2019, 379: 120730.
58	QIN P, JIA Z Z, WU J Y, et al. The thermal runaway analysis on LiFePO₄ electrical energy storage packs with different venting areas and void volumes[J]. Applied Energy, 2022, 313: 118767.
59	HUANG Z H, ZHAO C P, LI H, et al. Experimental study on thermal runaway and its propagation in the large format lithium ion battery module with two electrical connection modes[J]. Energy, 2020, 205: 117906.
60	ZHANG Q S, LIU T T, HAO C L, et al. In situ Raman investigation on gas components and explosion risk of thermal runaway emission from lithium-ion battery[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2022, 56: 105905.
61	杜光超, 郑莉莉, 张志超, 等. 圆柱形高镍三元锂离子电池高温热失控实验研究[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2020, 9(1): 249-256.
	DU G C, ZHENG L L, ZHANG Z C, et al. Experimental study on high temperature thermal runaway of cylindrical high nickel ternary lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2020, 9(1): 249-256.
62	庄春吉, 黄辉, 胡敏杰, 等. 热失控数据采集实验系统设计与实验研究[J]. 实验室科学, 2022, 25(2): 14-18.
	ZHUANG C J, HUANG H, HU M J, et al. Design and experimental study on thermal runaway data acquisition experiment system[J]. Laboratory Science, 2022, 25(2): 14-18.
63	GOLUBKOV A W, FUCHS D, WAGNER J, et al. Thermal-runaway experiments on consumer Li-ion batteries with metal-oxide and olivin-type cathodes[J]. RSC Advances, 2014, 4(7): 3633-3642.
64	YUAN L M, DUBANIEWICZ T, ZLOCHOWER I, et al. Experimental study on thermal runaway and vented gases of lithium-ion cells[J]. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2020, 144: 186-192.
65	OHSAKI T, KISHI T, KUBOKI T, et al. Overcharge reaction of lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2005, 146(1/2): 97-100.
66	YUAN Q F, ZHAO F G, WANG W D, et al. Overcharge failure investigation of lithium-ion batteries[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2015, 178: 682-688.
67	张青松, 刘添添, 郝朝龙, 等. 锂离子电池热失控气体快速检测及危险性分析方法[J]. 北京航空航天大学学报, 2023, 49(9): 2227-2233.
	ZHANG Q S, LIU T T, HAO C L, et al. Rapid detection analysis method of thermal runaway gas composition and risk of lithium ion battery[J]. Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2023, 49(9): 2227-2233.
68	JIN Y, ZHENG Z K, WEI D H, et al. Detection of micro-scale Li dendrite via H₂ gas capture for early safety warning[J]. Joule, 2020, 4(8): 1714-1729.
69	李磊, 李钊, 姬丹, 等. 过充电触发的LFP和NCM锂离子电池的热失控行为:差异与原因[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2022, 11(5): 1419-1427.
	LI L, LI Z, JI D, et al. Overcharge induced thermal runaway behaviors of pouch-type lithium-ion batteries with LFP and NCM cathodes: The differences and reasons[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(5): 1419-1427.
70	FERNANDES Y, BRY A, DE PERSIS S. Thermal degradation analyses of carbonate solvents used in Li-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2019, 414: 250-261.
71	LAMB J, ORENDORFF C J, ROTH E P, et al. Studies on the thermal breakdown of common Li-ion battery electrolyte components[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2015, 162(10): A2131-A2135.
72	RAVDEL B, ABRAHAM K M, GITZENDANNER R, et al. Thermal stability of lithium-ion battery electrolytes[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2003, 119/120/121: 805-810.
73	王铭民, 孙磊, 郭鹏宇, 等. 基于气体在线监测的磷酸铁锂储能电池模组过充热失控特性[J]. 高电压技术, 2021, 47(1): 279-286.
	WANG M M, SUN L, GUO P Y, et al. Overcharge and thermal runaway characteristics of lithium iron phosphate energy storage battery modules based on gas online monitoring[J]. High Voltage Engineering, 2021, 47(1): 279-286.
74	SOMANDEPALLI V, MARR K, HORN Q. Quantification of combustion hazards of thermal runaway failures in lithium-ion batteries[J]. SAE International Journal of Alternative Powertrains, 2014, 3(1): 98-104.
75	马彪, 林春景, 刘磊, 等. 锂离子电池热失控产气特性及其可燃极限[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2022, 11(5): 1592-1600.
	MA B, LIN C J, LIU L, et al. Venting characteristics and flammability limit of thermal runaway gas of lithium ion battery[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2022, 11(5): 1592-1600.
76	AMANO K O A, HAHN S K, BUTT N, et al. Composition and explosibility of gas emissions from lithium-ion batteries undergoing thermal runaway[J]. Batteries, 2023, 9(6): 300.
77	WILLSTRAND O, PUSHP M, ANDERSSON P, et al. Impact of different Li-ion cell test conditions on thermal runaway characteristics and gas release measurements[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2023, 68: 107785.
78	张青松, 刘添添, 白伟. 加热方式对锂离子电池热失控行为影响[J]. 中国安全科学学报, 2021, 31(9): 44-51.
	ZHANG Q S, LIU T T, BAI W. Effect of heating mode on thermal runaway behavior of lithium ion battery[J]. China Safety Science Journal, 2021, 31(9): 44-51.
79	YANG Y, WANG Z R, GUO P K, et al. Carbon oxides emissions from lithium-ion batteries under thermal runaway from measurements and predictive model[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2021, 33: 101863.
80	ZHOU Z Z, JU X Y, ZHOU X D, et al. A comprehensive study on the impact of heating position on thermal runaway of prismatic lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2022, 520: 230919.
81	LI Y W, JIANG L H, HUANG Z H, et al. Pressure effect on the thermal runaway behaviors of lithium-ion battery in confined space[J]. Fire Technology, 2023, 59(3): 1137-1155.
82	张青松, 包防卫, 牛江昊. 环境压力对锂电池热失控产气及爆炸风险的影响[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2023, 12(7): 2263-2270.
	ZHANG Q S, BAO F W, NIU J H. Risk analysis method of thermal runaway gas explosion in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2263-2270.
83	郝维健, 胡建, 马天翼, 等. 动力电池产气分析技术的研究与展望[J]. 时代汽车, 2022(3): 106-110.
	HAO W J, HU J, MA T Y, et al. Research and prospect of gas production analysis technology for power battery[J]. Auto Time, 2022(3): 106-110.
84	邓哲, 黄震宇, 刘磊, 等. 超声技术在锂离子电池表征中的应用[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2019, 8(6): 1033-1039.
	DENG Z, HUANG Z Y, LIU L, et al. Applications of ultrasound technique in characterization of lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2019, 8(6): 1033-1039.
85	CAI T, STEFANOPOULOU A G, SIEGEL J B. Modeling Li-ion battery temperature and expansion force during the early stages of thermal runaway triggered by internal shorts[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2019, 166(12): A2431-A2443.
86	CAI T, PANNALA S, STEFANOPOULOU A G, et al. Battery internal short detection methodology using cell swelling measurements[C]// 2020 American Control Conference (ACC). July 1-3, 2020, Denver, CO, USA. IEEE, 2020: 1143-1148.
87	WANG H B, XU H, ZHANG Z L, et al. Fire and explosion characteristics of vent gas from lithium-ion batteries after thermal runaway: A comparative study[J]. eTransportation, 2022, 13: 100190.
88	HU J T, LI L Z, BI Y J, et al. Locking oxygen in lattice: A quantifiable comparison of gas generation in polycrystalline and single crystal Ni-rich cathodes[J]. Energy Storage Materials, 2022, 47: 195-202.
89	陈达, 郝朝龙, 刘添添, 等. 锂离子电池热失控气体拉曼光谱分析方法研究[J]. 中国激光, 2022, 49(23): 186-194.
	CHEN D, HAO (C /Z)L, LIU T T, et al. Study on Raman spectrum analysis method of thermal runaway gas in lithium-ion battery[J]. Chinese Journal of Lasers, 2022, 49(23): 186-194.
90	SRINIVASAN R, THOMAS M E, AIROLA M B, et al. Preventing cell-to-cell propagation of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2020, 167(2): 020559.
91	GACHOT G, RIBIÈRE P, MATHIRON D, et al. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry as a suitable tool for the Li-ion battery electrolyte degradation mechanisms study[J]. Analytical Chemistry, 2011, 83(2): 478-485.
92	郝维健, 李琛, 陆春, 等. 基于产气分析的动力电池安全监测方法综述[J]. 中国汽车, 2022, 32(3): 59-63.
	HAO W J, LI C, LU C, et al. A review of traction battery safety monitoring methods based on gas generation analysis[J]. China Auto, 2022, 32(3): 59-63.
93	WENGER M, WALLER R, LORENTZ V R H, et al. Investigation of gas sensing in large lithium-ion battery systems for early fault detection and safety improvement[C]//IECON 2014-40th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society. October 29-November 1, 2014, Dallas, TX, USA. IEEE, 2015: 5654-5659.
94	王志荣, 杨赟, 佟轩, 等. 基于气体监测的锂离子电池组热失控自动报警器及其监测方法: CN108008083A[P]. 2018-05-08.
	WANG Z R, YANG Y, TONG X, et al. Lithium-ion battery pack thermal runway automatic alarming apparatus based on gas monitoring and monitoring method: CN108008083A[P]. 2018-05-08.
95	LEE K, CHO I, KANG M G, et al. Ultra-low-power E-nose system based on multi-micro-LED-integrated, nanostructured gas sensors and deep learning[J]. ACS Nano, 2023, 17(1): 539-551.
96	KANG H, CHO S Y, RYU J, et al. Multiarray nanopattern electronic nose (E-nose) by high-resolution top-down nanolithography[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2020, 30(27): 2002486.

[1]	Xiaowei HUANG, Shaopeng LI, Xiaogang ZHANG. Research on the impact and mechanism of the lithium replenishment degree of anode prelithiation on the performance of lithium-ion batteries [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(9): 2727-2734.
[2]	Xin GAO, Ruogu WANG, Wenjing GAO, Zejun DENG, Ruiqi LIANG, Kun YANG. Consistency evaluation method of battery pack in energy storage power station based on running data [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(9): 2937-2945.
[3]	Yonghao HUANG, Guojing ZANG, Weiya ZHU, Youhao LIAO, Weishan LI. Enhancing interfacial stability between lithium-containing ceramic separator and 4.35 V LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ cathode through LiF additives [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(8): 2361-2369.
[4]	Jin LI, Qingsong WANG, Depeng KONG, Xiaodong WANG, Zhenhua YU, Yanfei LE, Xinyan HUANG, Zhenkai HU, Houfu WU, Huabin FANG, Caowei, Shaoyu ZHANG, Ping ZHUO, Ye CHEN, Ziting LI, Wenxin MEI, Yue ZHANG, Lixiang ZHAO, Liang TANG, Zonghou HUANG, Chi CHEN, Yanhu LIU, Yuxi CHU, Xiaoyuan XU, Jin ZHANG, Yikai LI, Rong FENG, Biao YANG, Bo HU, Xiaoying YANG. Research progress on the safety assessment of lithium-ion battery energy storage [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2282-2301.
[5]	Jiayi ZHANG, Suting WENG, Zhaoxiang WANG, Xuefeng WANG. Solid electrolyte interphase （SEI） on graphite anode correlated with thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2105-2118.
[6]	Qingsong ZHANG, Fangwei BAO, Jiangjao NIU. Risk analysis method of thermal runaway gas explosion in lithium-ion batteries [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2263-2270.
[7]	Zhiwei CHEN, Weige ZHANG, Junwei ZHANG, Yanru ZHANG. Comprehensive health assessment and screening method of power battery pack based on visual characteristics of charge curves [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2211-2219.
[8]	Chong XU, Ning XU, Zhimin JIANG, Zhongkai LI, Yang HU, Hong YAN, Guoqiang MA. Mechanisms of gas evolution and suppressing strategies based on the electrolyte in lithium-ion batteries [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2119-2133.
[9]	Qixin GAO, Jingteng ZHAO, Guoxing LI. Research progress on fast-charging lithium-ion batteries [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2166-2184.
[10]	Jingxuan MA, Yuhang SONG, Shuang SHI, Nawei LYU, Kangyong YIN, Guirong WANG, Kaiyuan DU, Yang JIN. Early warning of the thermal runaway of liquid-cooled LiFePO₄ battery module based on the sudden change of air-pressure signal detection [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(7): 2246-2255.
[11]	Lingfeng HUANG, Dongmei HAN, Sheng HUANG, Shuanjin WANG, Min XIAO, Yuezhong MENG. Research progress of polymer electrolytes containing organoboron for lithium-ion batteries [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(6): 1815-1830.
[12]	Birong TAN, Jianhua DU, Xianghu YE, Xin CAO, Chang QU. Overview of SOC estimation methods for lithium-ion batteries based on model [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(6): 1995-2010.
[13]	Ya CHEN, Liyun FAN, Jingxue LI, Meisi LI, Chao XU, Yuanqi GU. Research on heat dissipation of lithium-ion batteries with secondary flow serpentine channel [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(6): 1880-1889.
[14]	Xijiang SHEN, Qiangling DUAN, Peng QIN, Qingsong WANG, Jinhua SUN. Experimental study on thermal runaway mitigation and heat transfer characteristics of ternary lithium-ion batteries [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(6): 1862-1871.
[15]	Luhao HAN, Ziyang WANG, Xiaolong HE, Chunshan HE, Xiaolong SHI, Bin YAO. The effect of water mist strategies on thermal runaway fire suppression of large-capacity NCM lithium-ion battery [J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2023, 12(5): 1664-1674.