Fig. 1

Comparison of coin and pouch cells. Differences in (a) design parameters[75] and (b) cycle performance[52]"

Fig. 2

(a) Failure mechanism map at varied currents and capacities. The color of samples in the transition zone indicates the occurrence ratio of polarization and short-circuit failure; (b) The photo and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of electrode and separator after 10 cycles at10.0 mA/cm2/10.0 mAh/cm2[86]"

Fig. 3

Diagram of the relationship between energy density and specific capacity of the composite lithium anode[88]. The calculation bases on the total mass of a battery. The capacity of the battery is 5 Ah, the area of the electrode is 28 cm2，the amount of the electrolyte is 2.3 g/Ah and the N/P ratio is 2"

Fig. 4

(a) Schematic of the material design and the consequent synthetic procedures from a GO film (left) to a sparked rGO film (middle) to a layered Li-rGO composite film (right); (b) Illustration for the structural evolution from the Li/G composite to the Li@G anode(left),and large area of anode (right)[106]; (c) The graphical illustration of synthetic process and plating/strippng behavior of Mg x Li y /LiF-Li-rGO anode[107]; (d) Digital and SEM images of the sandwiched Li[108]"

Fig. 5

(a) Preparation of Li/CF composite anode and the formation of LiC6 layers[115]; (b) Schematic diagram of the fabrication process of housed Li[116]; (c) Illustration of self-smoothing behaviour in the Li-C anode[117]; (d) Schematic illustration of the plating process in composite anode with a routine 3D host and a pressure self-adaptable host[118]"

Fig. 6

(a) Lithium deposits on copper foil directly and through PMF[123]; (b) Electrokinetic phenomena in 3D PPS under an electric field and electrodiffusion of Li ions in traditional cells under an electric field, The green and orange balls represent cations and anions, respectively[125]; (c) Schematic illustration of the polar interaction between the polymer host and solvent molecules in a composite Li anode[126]"

Table 1

Comparison of cycle performance with composite Li anodes"

Fig. 7

(a) The summary diagram of the relation between the cycling performance and the conductivity of different hosts[132]; (b) The schematic illustration of the morphology of Li deposition in composite anodes with conductive and non-conductive host[132]; (c) The Li nucleation overpotential of Cu and CuZn at different cycles[133]; (d) Schematic diagram of failure mechanism and reactivation of lithiophilic sites[133]"