Fig.1

The development of silicon-based anode materials"

Fig.2

Chemical vapor deposition steps"

Fig.3

(a) SEM images of nano silicon/graphite composite electrodes; (b) Cyclic behavior of composite electrode containing 20% nano silicon in EC∶DMC (1∶1), 1 mol/L LiPF6, 2% VC[52]; (c) Hybrid manufacturing processes for SGC; (d) Reversible discharge capacity and cycle diagram of PG, SG, SGC, 9%-SGC and B-Si/G for 100 cycles at 0.5 C[53]; (e) Increased rate capacity of SGC from 0.2 C to 5 C compared to PG, SG and B-Si/G; (f) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of the p-SGC composites; (g) Cycling performance of NG, PG, n-SGC, p'-SGC, p-SGC and p-SGC-25% electrodes at 0.2 C[54]"

Fig.4

(a) A schematic of the silicon/carbon nanotube hybrid nanostructure prepared by growing an initial vertically aligned carbon nanotube using a liquid injection CVD, followed by the subsequent deposition of silicon; (b) Discharge/charge capacity and coulomb efficiency maps for 25 cycles[21]; (c) Schematic diagram of fabrication of a silicon nanowire array on a carbon nanotube (SiNW-CNT) array on a collector (stainless steel substrate); (d) The area capacities of Si NW-CNT and Si NWs as working electrodes were compared at 0.05 C (210 mA/g) in the first cycle and 0.5 C (2100 mA/g) in the remaining cycles at a constant current between 0.02 and 1.5 V[61]; (e)Si/CNTs manufacturing process diagram; (f) Cycle performance of soft pack batteries at 0.5 C (Si/CNTsS/ Graphite vs NCA and graphite vs LCO) [62]; (g) A schematic diagram for the synthesis of GC@Si-C microspheres; (h) long cycling performance at 0.5 A/g; (i) 1 C cycling performance of the GC@Si-2/G||NCM811 full cell"

Table 1

Comparison of porous carbon raw materials"

Fig.5

(a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis method of ACSC composites; (b) Cyclic performance of ACS0.48C (1 C=1700 mAh/g); (c) Silicon loading behavior determined by the surface morphology and pore structure of the carbon carrier; (d) Schematic diagram of HC-0.8@Si@C composite material; (e) rate performance of HC-1@Si@C、HC-0.8@Si@C和HC-0.6@Si@C (1 C = 1500 mAh/g); (f) Cycle performance at 0.2 C"

Fig.6

(a) Schematic diagram of the CVD device, where a) is an automatic flow controller; b) and c) are manual flow controllers; d) and e) are digital flowmeters; f) and g) are stainless steel source bottles; h) the reaction tube; i) The tubular insert is aligned with the hot area of the furnace; j) for the furnace; k) oil bubbler[73]; (b) Experimental setup of silicon CVD on carbon fiber substrate in microwave plasma CVD reactor[71]; (c) Schematic diagram of the formation of silicon nanocomposite particles assembled from the bottom up; (d) The relationship between the reversible delithiation capacity and coulomb efficiency of the C-Si particle electrode and the number of cycles compared with the theoretical capacity of graphite[74]; (e) Structural diagram of C/SiNW/GM composites; (f) Long cycle and rate performance of C/SiNW/GM[40]"

Fig.7

(a) Schematic diagram of LPCVD and PECVD processes; (b) The full battery of NCA vs PECVD-Si-SWCNT cycles at 40% DOD, and the charge and discharge ratios are C/2 and 2C/3, respectively; (c) Simulation of the behaviour of silicon growth inhibitors; (d) 110 Ah prismatic battery using C (5)Si-G/Gra/NCM811[76]; (e) A: Schematic diagram of the decomposition of silane into nanoporous carbon particles by the CVD process; B: Diagram of a tube furnace with toner and silane flowing from right to left[77]"

Fig.8

(a) Morphological changes of lithium/garnet/silicon cells under discharge conditions; (b) Voltage profiles of 1 μm Si anode electrodes in solid and liquid lithium-ion batteries; (c) Mechanical constraints of garnet type solid electrolyte"

Fig.9

(a) Structural diagram of (a) fluidized bed and (b) rotary furnace CVD equipment"