Fig. 1

Schematic diagram of battery nondestructive testing monitoring methods [20, 22-28]"

Fig. 2

Schematic diagram of sensor working principle"

Fig. 3

Schematic of the smart battery design and fabrication. (a) Dendrite formation in a traditional lithium battery where complete penetration of the separator by a lithium dendrite is only detected when the battery fails due to an internal short circuit and VLi-Li drops to zero; (b) In comparison, a lithium battery with a bifunctional separator where the overgrown lithium dendrite penetrates into the separator and makes contact with the conducting copper layer, giving rise to a drop in VCu-Li as warning of impending failure due to an internal short circuit. As well as, the full battery remains safely operational with non-zero potential[11] (NatureCommunications has image copyright)"

Fig. 4

(a) Schematic of customized RTD embedded LIB coin cell; (b) RTD embedded polylactic acid spacer and CR2032 cell with internal RTD. Dimension of the RTD embedded spacer was comparable to ordinary CR2032 coin cell spacer, allowing for reliable sensor-electrode contact and cell sealing after assembly[22](ScientificReports has image copyright)"

Fig. 5

Possible schemes of CO2, CH4, and C2H4 evolution in graphite/NMC532 batteries[42] (JournalofEnergyChemistry has image copyright)"

Fig. 6

Schematic diagram and image of FBG sensor attached (a) or implanted (b) on anode electrode of lithium ion battery respectively (c) and (d)[47] (EnergyTechnology has image copyright)"

Fig. 7

(a) Schematics and spectra of a FBG; (b) Schematics and spectra of a TFBG[48] (Energy&EnvironmentalScience has image copyright)"

Fig. 8

Schematic of the cell embedded with FBG and corresponding electrochemical performance. (a) The schematic illustration of the structure of FBG and the Li-S pouch cell embedded with FBG; (b) The cycle performance and (c) discharge-charge curves of the Li-S pouch cell embedded with FBG and a normal cell without FBG[23] (EnergyEnvironmentalScience has image copyright)"

Fig. 9

The schematic diagram of experimental setup for strain monitoring of anode-free lithium metal batteries[51] (AdvancedScience has image copyright)"

Fig. 10

(a) Schematic depiction of the measurement setup with a thin film pouch cell placed in the coil of a NMR device, connected to a battery cycler; (b) Schematic thin film pouch cell; (c)—(f) 7Li-NMR spectra of thin film pouch cells and SEM images of the corresponding electrodes after (c1—f1) and (c2—f2) 8 hours of electrodeposition at 0.5 mA/cm2 containing 1-PF6-C, 1-TFSI-C, 1-TFSI-E and 3-TFSI-E[59] (PhysChemChemPhys has image copyright)"

Fig. 11

Schematics of the two insitu NMR setups[24] (Nature has image copyright)"

Fig. 12

Noninvasive electron paramagnetic resonance imaging technique monitors changes in lithium deposits inside the battery during charging and discharging[25] (ChemistryofMaterials has image copyright)"

Fig. 13

The schematic depiction of experimental setup of the insitu cell for simultaneous[26](NatureCommunications has image copyright)"

Fig. 14

Evolution of dendrite growth. (a)—(d) X-ray tomography slices showing the cross-sections of symmetric lithium cells cycled to various stages; (e)—(h) The corresponding 3D reconstructed image[15](NatureMaterials has image copyright)"

Fig. 15

(a) 3D visualization of Sn particles at the first lithiation-delithiation process; (b) 3D morphological change of Sn particles at the first sodiation-desodiation cycle; (c) Schematic illustration showing the difference of Sn microstructural change in sodium-ion battery and lithium ion battery[75](NatureCommunications has image copyright)"

Fig. 16

(a) Schematic view of conventional X-ray tomography; (b) Schematic of the oblique soft X-ray tomography[80](ElectrochimicaActa has image copyright)"

Fig. 17

Schematic diagram of neutron triaxial spectrometer"

Fig. 18

Image displays the reconstructed tomograms from neutron and X-ray CT along with examples of sections extracted following virtual unrolling of the reconstructions. Clearly visible in the X-ray images is the nickel current collecting mesh, which appears brighter than the Li X MnO2 active electrode material[27](Naturecommunication has image copyright )"

Fig. 19

Schematic diagram of ultrasonic monitoring technology and analysis of results[20](JournalofPowerSources has image copyright)"

Fig. 20

Schematic diagram of hollow-core fiber-coupled Raman analysis of lithium-ion pouch cell[24](NatureCommunications has image copyright)"

Table 1

Overview of comparison and analysis of battery non-destructive testing monitoring methods"